Lecture 7.

Lie brackets and integrability

In this lecture we will introduce the Lie bracket of two vector fields, and
interpret it in several ways.

7.1 The Lie bracket.

Definition 7.1.1 Let X and Y by smooth vector fields on a manifold M . The

Lie bracket [X, Y ] of X and Y is the vector field which acts on a function
f ∈ C ∞ (M ) to give XY f − Y Xf .

To make sense of this definition we need to check that this does indeed
define a derivation. Linearity is clear, but we need to verify the Leibniz rule:
[X, Y ](f g) = X(Y (f g)) − Y (X(f g))
= X(f Y (g) + Y (f )g) − Y (f X(g) + X(f )g)
= f (XY g) + (Xf )(Y g) + (XY f )g + (Y f )(Xg)
− (Y f )(Xg) − f (Y Xg) − (Y Xf )g − (Xf )(Y g)
= f (XY g − Y Xg) + (XY f − Y Xf )g
= f [X, Y ]g + ([X, Y ]f )g.

It is useful to write [X, Y ] in terms of its components in some chart: Write

X = X i ∂i and Y = Y j ∂j (here I’m using the summation convention: Sum
over repeated indices). Note that

∂2   ∂2  
[∂i , ∂j ]f = ∂i ∂j f − ∂j ∂i f = f ◦ ϕ−1 − f ◦ ϕ−1 = 0.
∂i ∂j ∂j ∂i
Therefore we have
n
 
[X, Y ] = X i ∂i Y j ∂j − Y j ∂j X i ∂i = X i ∂i Y i − Y i ∂i X j ∂j . (7.1)
i,j=1

The Lie bracket measures the extent to which the derivatives in directions X
and Y do not commute. The following proposition makes this more precise:
60 Lecture 7. Lie brackets and integrability

Proposition 7.1.1 Let X, Y ∈ X (M), and let Ψ and be the local flow of X
in some region containing the point x ∈ M . Then
d  
−1 
[X, Y ]x = (Dx Ψt ) YΨt (x)  .
dt t=0

The idea is this: The flow Ψt moves us from x in the direction of the
vector field X. We look at the vector field Y in this direction, and use the
map Dx Ψt : Tx M → TΨt (x) M , which is non-singular, to bring Y back to Tx M .
This gives us a family of vectors in the same vector space, so we can compare
them by differentiating. In particular, this gives us the nice interpretation:
The Lie bracket [X, Y ] vanishes if and only if Y is invariant under the flow
of X. For this reason, the Lie bracket is also often called the Lie derivative,
and denoted by LX Y .

Proof (Method 1): I will first give a proof which is quite illustrative, but which
has the drawback that we need to consider two separate cases. Fix x ∈ M .
Case 1: Suppose Xx = 0. I will construct a special chart about x as follows:
First take any chart ϕ : U → V about x, and by composition with a linear
map assume that Xx = ∂n (x). Let
 
Σ = ϕ−1 {(w1 , . . . , wn ) ∈ V : wn = ϕn (x)} .

Then Σ is a smooth (n − 1)-dimensional submanifold of M which passes

through x, and is transverse to the vector field X on some neighbourhood
of x (i.e. Ty Σ ⊕ RXy = Ty M for all y ∈ Σ sufficiently close to x). Now
consider the map Ψ̃ : Σ × (−δ, δ) → M given by restricting the flow Ψ of X
to Σ × (−δ, δ): We have
 
In−1 0
D(x,0) Ψ̃ =
0 1

with respect to the natural bases {∂1 , . . . , ∂n−1 , ∂t } for T(x,0) (Σ × R) and
{∂1 , . . . , ∂n−1 , ∂n = Xx } for Tx M . In particular, D(x,0) Ψ̃ is non-singular, and
so by the inverse function theorem there is a neighbourhood of (x, 0) in Σ ×R
on which Ψ̃ is a diffeomorphism. We take ϕ̃ to be the chart obtained by first
taking the inverse of Ψ̃ to obtain a point in Σ × R, and then applying ϕ to
the point in Σ to obtain a point in Rn−1 × R. The special feature of this
chart is that Xy = ∂n on the entire chart.
Now we can compute in this chart: The flow of X can be written down
immediately: ϕ̃ ◦ Ψt ◦ ϕ̃−1 (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , xn + t). If we write
Y = Y k ∂k , then we have
 k
−1
(Dx Ψt ) YΨt (x) = Y k (x1 , . . . , xn + t),

and so
 7.1 The Lie bracket. 61

d  k  ∂Y k ∂Y k
−1 
(Dx Ψt ) YΨt (x)  = n
= Xj = [X, Y ]k
dt t=0 ∂x ∂xj
by (7.1), since ∂i X j = 0 for all j.
Case 2: Now suppose Xx = 0. Then we have Ψt (x) = x for all t, and the local
group property implies that the linear maps {Dx Ψt } form a one-parameter
group in the Lie group GL(Tx M ) GL(n). Hence Dx Ψt = etA for some A,
and we get
−1
(Dx Ψt ) YΨt (x) = etA Yx ,
and 
d  −1 
(Dx Ψt ) YΨt (x)  = −AYx .
dt t=0
It remains to compute A: Working in local coordinates,
A(∂j ) = ∂t ∂j Ψt = ∂j ∂t Ψt = ∂j X.
Therefore we get
d  
−1 
(Dx Ψt ) YΨt (x)  = −Y j ∂j X k ∂k = [X, Y ]
dt t=0

by (7.1), since X k = 0 for all k.

Proof (Method 2): Here is another proof which is somewhat more direct but
perhaps less illuminating: Choose any chart ϕ for M about x. In this chart
we can write uniquely X = X j ∂j and Y = Y k ∂k , and here the coefficients
X j and Y k are smooth functions on a neighbourhood of x. Then
d  j  
j



j
 

DΨt (x) Ψ−t YΨt (x)  = ∂t ∂k Ψ−t  Yxk + ∂k Ψ−t ∂t Y k (Ψt x)
dt t=0
  t=0 t=0
j  k j i k
= ∂k ∂t Ψ−t  Yx + δ X ∂ Y
k x i x
t=0
= −Yxk ∂k Xxj + Xxi ∂i Yxj
= [X, Y ]jx .

We could now deduce the following result on the naturality of the Lie
bracket directly from Proposition 7.6.2. However I will give a direct proof:

Proposition 7.1.2 Let F : M → N be a smooth map, X, Y ∈ X (M ), and

W, Z ∈ X (N ) with W F -related to X and Z F -related to Y . Then for every
x ∈ M,
[W, Z]F (x) = Dx F ([X, Y ]x ).

Think in particular about the case where F is a diffeomorphism: Then

the proposition says that the push-forward of the Lie bracket of X and Y is
the Lie bracket of the push-forwards of X and Y .
62 Lecture 7. Lie brackets and integrability

Proof. For any f : N → R, and x ∈ M , y = F (x) ∈ N ,

[W, Z]y f = Wy Zf − Zy W f
= Dx F (Xx )Zf − Dx F (Yx )W f
= Xx ((Zf ) ◦ F ) − Yx ((W f ) ◦ F )
= Xx (Y (f ◦ F )) − Yx (X(f ◦ F ))
= [X, Y ]x (f ◦ F )
= Dx F ([X, Y ]x )f.
Here we used the fact that for every p ∈ M ,

(Zf ) ◦ Fp = (Zf )F (p) = Dp F (Yp )f = Yp (f ◦ F ),

and similarly (W f ) ◦ F = X(f ◦ F ).

7.2 The Lie algebra of vector fields.

The Lie bracket gives the space of smooth vector fields X (M ) on a manifold
M the structure of a Lie algebra:

Definition 7.2.1 A Lie algebra consists of a (real) vector space E together

with a multiplication [., .] : E × E → E which satisfies the three properties

[u, v] = −[v, u];

[au + bv, w] = a[u, w] + b[v, w];
[[u, v], w] + [[v, w], u] + [[w, u], v] = 0,
for all u, v, w ∈ E and a, b ∈ R.

The first two properties are immediate. The third (known as the Jacobi
identity) can be verified directly:

[[X, Y ], Z]f = [X, Y ]Zf − Z[X, Y ]f

= XY Zf − Y XZf − ZXY f + ZY Xf
[[X, Y ], Z]f + [[Y, Z], X]f + [[Z, X], Y ]f
= XY Zf − Y XZf − ZXY f + ZY Xf
+ Y ZXf − ZY Xf − XY Zf + XZY f
+ ZXY f − XZY f − Y ZXf + Y XZf
= 0.
The following exercise gives another interpretation of the Jacobi identity:
 7.2 The Lie algebra of vector fields. 63

Exercise 7.2.1 Let X, Y, Z ∈ X (M ). Let Ψ be the local flow of Z near a

point x ∈ M . For each t proposition 7.1.2 gives

DΨt ([X, Y ]) = [DΨt (X), DΨt (Y )].

Differentiate this with respect to t to get another proof of the Jacobi identity.

Lie algebras play an important role in the theory of Lie groups: Consider
the space g of left-invariant vector fields on a Lie group G. We have already
seen that this is a finite-dimensional vector space isomorphic to the tangent
space at the identity Te G by the natural construction

v ∈ Te G → V ∈ g : Vg = De lg (v).

We will show that g is a Lie algebra. It is sufficient to show that the vector
subspace g of X (M ) is closed under the Lie bracket operation:

Proposition 7.2.2
[g, g] ⊆ g.

Proof. Let X, Y ∈ g. Then for any g ∈ G, Proposition 7.1.2 gives

[X, Y ] = [(lg )∗ X, (lg )∗ Y ] = (lg )∗ [X, Y ]

since X is lg -related to itself, as is Y . Therefore [X, Y ] ∈ g.

The Lie algebra of a group captures the local or infinitesimal structure of a

group. It turns out that the group G itself can be (almost) completely recovered
just from the Lie algebra g – at least, g determines the universal cover of G. Different
groups with the same universal cover have the same Lie algebra.

Exercise 7.2.2 Show that:

(1). A smooth group homomorphism ρ : G → H induces a homomorphism
from the Lie algebra g of G to the Lie algebra h of H;
(2). If H is a subgroup of G, then h is a Lie subalgebra of g;
(3). A diffeomorphism of manifolds induces a homomorphism between their
vector field Lie algebras;
(4). A submersion F : M → N induces a Lie subalgebra of X (M ) (consisting
of those vector fields which are mapped to zero by DF ).
64 Lecture 7. Lie brackets and integrability

7.3 Integrability of families of vector fields

The significance of the Lie bracket, for our purposes, comes from its role in
indicating when a family of vector fields can be simultaneously integrated
to give a map: Suppose we have k vector fields E1 , . . . , Ek on M , and we
want to try to find a map F from Rk to M for which ∂i F = Ei for i =
1, . . . , k. The naive idea is that we try to construct such a map as follows:
Pick some point x in M , and set F (0) = x. Then we can arrange ∂k F = Ek ,
by setting F (tek ) = ΨEk (x, t) for each t. The next step should be to follow
the integral curves of the vector field Ek−1 from F (tek ) for time s to get the
point F (tek + sek−1 ):

F (tek + sek−1 ) = ΨEk−1 (ΨEk (x, t), s) ,

and so on following Ek−2 , ..., E2 , and finally E1 . Unfortunately that doesn’t

always work:

Example 7.3.1 Take M = R2 , E1 = ∂1 , and (E2 )(x,y) = (1 + x)∂2 . Following

the recipe outlined above, we set F (0, 0) = (0, 0), and follow the flow of E2
to get F (0, t) = (0, t), and then follow E1 to get F (s, t) = (s, t). However,
this gives DF (∂1 ) = E1 but not DF (∂2 ) = E2 . Note that if we change our
procedure by first integrating along the vector field E1 , then the vector field
E2 , then we don’t get the same result: Instead we get F (s, t) = (s, t + st).

In fact, there is an easy way to tell this could not have worked: If there
was such a map, then we would have

[E1 , E2 ] = [DF (∂1 ), DF (∂2 )] = DF ([∂1 , ∂2 ]) = 0.

But in the example we have [E1 , E2 ] = ∂2 = 0. It turns out that this is the
only obstruction to constructing such a map:

Proposition 7.3.2 Suppose E1 , . . . , Ek ∈ X (M ) are vector fields which com-

mute: [Ei , Ej ] = 0 for i, j = 1, . . . , k. Then for each x ∈ M there exists a
neighbourhood U of 0 in Rk and a unique smooth map F : U → M satisfying
F (0) = x and Dy F (∂i ) = (Ei )F (y) for every y ∈ U and i ∈ {1, . . . , k}.

Proof. We construct the map F exactly as outlined above. In other words,

we set
F (y 1 , . . . , y k ) = ΨE1 ,y1 ◦ ΨE2 ,y2 ◦ . . . ◦ ΨEk ,yk (x).
Where ΨEi ,t is the flow of the vector field Ei for time t. This gives immediately
that DF (∂1 ) = E1 everywhere, but DF (∂2 ) is not so clear.

Lemma 7.3.3 If [X, Y ] ≡ 0, then the flows of X and Y commute:

ΨX,t ◦ ΨY,s = ΨY,s ◦ ΨX,t .

 7.3 Integrability of families of vector fields 65

Proof. This is clearly true for t = 0, since ΨX,0 (y) = y for all y. Therefore it
suffices to show that
∂t ΨX,t ◦ ΨY,s = ∂t ΨY,s ◦ ΨX,t .
The left-hand side is equal to the vector field X by assumption, while the
right is equal to DΨY,s (X). We have
" s
d
DΨY,s (X) = DΨY,0 (X) + DΨY,r (X) dr
0 dr
" s 
d 
=X+ DΨY,r  DΨY,r
(X) dr,
0 dr r
=0

where I used the local group property of the flow of Y to get DΨY,r+r
=
DΨY,r ◦ DΨY,r . By Proposition 6.1.1, we have


DΨY,r
(X) = −[Y, X] = 0,
r
=0

and so DΨY,s (X) = X.

Thus we have for every j ∈ {1, . . . , k} the expression

F (y 1 , . . . , y k ) = ΨE j ,yj ◦ ΨE 1 ,y1 ◦ . . . ◦ ΨEj−1 ,yj−1 ◦ ΨEj+1 ,yj+1 ◦ . . . ◦ ΨEk ,yk (x)

and differentiation in the y j direction immediately gives DF (∂j ) = Ej .

A closely related but slightly more general integrability theorem is the

theorem of Frobenius, which we will prove next.

Definition 7.3.4 A distribution D of k-planes on M is a map which asso-

ciates to each x ∈ M a k-dimensional subspace Dx of Tx M , and which is
smooth in the sense that for any V ∈ X (M ) and any chart with coordinate
tangent basis {∂1 , . . . , ∂n }, the vector field VD given by projecting V onto D
(orthogonally with respect to the given basis) is smooth.

Remark. One can make this definition more natural (i.e. with less explicit reference
to charts) as follows: Given a manifold M , there is a natural manifold Gk (T M )
constructed from M , called the Grassmannian bundle (of k-planes) over M
Gk (T M ) = {(x, E) : x ∈ M, E a k−dimensional subspace of Tx M } .
Note that the k-dimensional subspaces of Tx M are in one-to-one correspondence
with the space of equivalence classes of rank (n−k) linear maps from Tx M to Rn−k ,
under the equivalence relation
M1 ∼ M2 ⇐⇒ M1 = LM2 , L ∈ GL(n − k) :
We denote the equivalence class of M by [M ]. Given a k-dimensional subspace E,
we choose any n−k independent linear functions f1 , . . . , fn−k on Tx M which vanish
66 Lecture 7. Lie brackets and integrability

on E (for example, choose a basis {e1 , . . . , en } for Tx M such that {e1 , . . . , ek } is

a basis for E, and take fi to be the linear function which takes ek+i to 1 and all
the other basis elements to zero. Then f = (f1 , . . . , fn−k ) defines a rank n − k
linear map from Tx M to Rn−k vanishing on E. This correspondence is well-defined
as a map into the space of equivalence classes, since if we choose a different basis
{e1 , . . . , en } of this form, then it is related to the first by ei = A(ei ) for some

non-singular matrix, and we have fj = n−k 
m=1 Ak+j fm , i.e. f = Af ∼ F .
k+m

Conversely, given a rank n − k linear function M , we associate to it the k

dimensional linear subspace ker M . Clearly if M1 ∼ M2 then ker M1 = ker M2 .
Now we can choose charts for Gk (T M ): Let A be an atlas for M , ϕ : U → V a
chart of A. Define an open subset Ũ of Gk (T M ) by
  !

Ũ = (x, [F ]) ∈ U × L(Tx M, Rn−k ) : F  nonsingular
span(∂1 ,...,∂n−k )

and define ϕσ : Uσ → Rn × Rk(n−k) as follows:

ϕσ (x, [F ]) = (ϕ, N )

where N ∈ Lk,n−k R is the (n − k) × k matrix constructed as follows: Set

k(n−k)

Fij = F j (∂σ(i) ). Then by assumption the first (n − k) columns of the matrix F

form a non-singular (n − k) × (n − k) matrix, which we denote by G. Then we have
[F ] = [G−1 F ], and G−1 F has the form
[In−k N]
for some (n − k) × k matrix N . N is well-defined as a function of the equivalence
class [F ], since if F̃ = AF , then G̃ = GA−1 , so G̃−1 F̃ = G−1 F . Explicitly,
 τ (1) τ (n−k−1) τ (n−k) j
j σ,τ ∈Sn−k sgnσsgnτ Fσ(1) . . . Fσ(n−k−1) Fn−k+i δσ(n−k)
Ni =  τ (1) τ (n−k−1) τ (n−k)
σ,τ ∈Sn−k sgnσsgnτ Fσ(1) . . . Fσ(n−k−1) Fσ(n−k)

for i = 1, . . . , k and j = 1, . . . , n − k, where the sums are over all pairs of permuta-
tions of n − k objects.
Note that these charts cover Gk (T M ), because even if [F ] ∈ Gk (Tx M ) does not
have its first n − k columns non-singular with respect to the coordinate tangent
basis of ϕ, we can choose a new chart for which this is true, of the form A ◦ ϕ for
some A ∈ GL(n).
Then we can define a k-dimensional distribution to be a smooth map D from
M to Gk (T M ) such that Dx ∈ Gk (Tx M ) for all x ∈ M .

The question which the Frobenius theorem addresses is the following:

Given a distribution D, can we find a k-dimensional submanifold Σ through
each point, such that Tx Σ = Dx for every x ∈ Σ? This is what is meant by
integrating a distribution.
For convenience we will denote by X (D) the vector space of smooth vector
fields X on M for which Xx ∈ Dx for every x ∈ M (i.e. vector fields tangent
to the distribution).

Proposition 7.3.5 (Frobenius’ Theorem) A distribution D is integrable

if and only if X (D) is closed under the Lie bracket operation.
 7.3 Integrability of families of vector fields 67

Proof. One direction is clear: Suppose there is such a submanifold N , embed-

ded in M by a map F . Then for any smooth vector fields X, Y ∈ X (D) there
are unique vector fields X̃ and Ỹ in X (N ) such that X is F -related to X̃ and
Y is F -related to Ỹ . Then Proposition 7.1.2 gives [X, Y ] = DF ([X̃, Ỹ ]) is in
X (D).
The other direction takes a little more work: Given a distribution of k-
planes D which is involutive (closed under Lie brackets), and any point x ∈
M , we want to construct a submanifold through x tangent to the distribution.
Choose a chart ϕ for M near x, and assume that Dx is the subspace of Tx M
generated by the first k coordinate tangent vectors. Then by the smoothness
of the distribution we can describe Dy for y sufficiently close to x as follows:
   
 k n 
Dy = ci ∂i + aji (y)∂j  : (c1 , . . . , ck ) ∈ Rk .
 
i=1 j=k+1

Here the functions aji are smooth functions on a neighbourhood of x, for

i = 1, . . . , k and j = k + 1, . . . , n. In particular we have k non-vanishing
vector fields E1 , . . . , Ek tangent to D, given by
n
(Ei )y = ∂i + aji (y)∂j .
j=k+1

Now we compute:
 
n n
[Ei , Ej ] = ∂i + api (y)∂p , ∂j + aqj (y)∂q 
p=k+1 q=k+1
 
n n
 
= ∂i apj − ∂j api + aqi ∂q apj − aqj ∂q api  ∂p .
p=k+1 q=k+1

But by assumption [Ei , Ei ] ∈ X (D), so it is a linear combination of the vector

fields E1 , . . . , Ek . But [Ei , Ej ] has no component in the direction ∂1 , . . . , ∂k .
Therefore [Ei , Ej ] = 0.
Proposition 7.3.2 gives the existence of a map F from a region of Rk into
M with DF (∂i ) = Ei for i = 1, . . . , k. In particular DF is of full rank, and
F is an immersion, hence locally an embedding, and the image of F is a
submanifold with tangent space equal to D everywhere.

Example 7.3.2 The Heisenberg group In this example we investigate a situ-

ation where a distribution D is not involutive. Let G be the group of 3 × 3
matrices of the form  
1 x1 x3
 0 1 x2  ,
0 0 1
68 Lecture 7. Lie brackets and integrability

which we identify with three-dimensional space R3 . The left-invariant vector

fields corresponding to the standard basis {e1 , e2 , e3 } at the identity 0 ∈ R3
are given by
    
1 x1 x3 0 1 0 0 1 0
E1 =  0 1 x2   0 0 0  =  0 0 0  e1 ;
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
    
1 x1 x3 0 0 0 0 0 x1
E2 =  0 1 x2   0 0 1  =  0 0 1  e2 + x1 e3 ;
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
    
1 x1 x3 0 0 1 0 0 1
E3 =  0 1 x2   0 0 0  =  0 0 0  e3 .
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
We take a distribution D on R3 to be the subspace at each point spanned
by E1 and E2 . Then D is not involutive, since we have
[E1 , E2 ] = [e1 , e2 + x1 e3 ] = e3 = E3 .
The behaviour in this case turns out to be as far as one could imagine from
that in the involutive case : If there were a submanifold tangent to the distri-
bution, then only points in that submaniofld could be reached along curves
tangent to the distribution. In contrst, we have

Proposition 7.3.6 For any y ∈ R3 there exists a smooth γ : [0, 1] → R3

with γ  (t) ∈ Dγ(t) for all t, γ(0) = 0, and γ(1) = y.

In other words, every point can be reached by following curves tangent

to D.

Proof. We consider curves tangent to the distribution, given by prescribing

the tangent vector at each point:
γ  (t) = α(t)E1 + β(t)E2 .
This gives the system of equations
x = α;
y  = β;
z  = xβ;
which gives " t
x(t) = α(s) ds;
0
" t
y(t) = β(s) ds;
0
" t " s
z(t) = β(s) α(s ) ds ds.
0 0
 7.3 Integrability of families of vector fields 69

Then if y = (X, Y, Z) we make the choice α(t) = X + af (t) and

β(t) = Y + bf (t), where a and b are constants to be chosen, and f is
1 1
a smooth function which satisfies 0 f (t)dt = 0 and 0 tf (t)ds = 0, but
1t
Γ = 0 0 f (t)f (s)ds dt = 0 (for example, f (t) = t2 − t + 1/6 will work).
Then we have x(1) = X, y(1) = Y , and z(1) = XY /2 + abΓ . Finally, we can
choose a and b to ensure that z(1) = Z (e.g. a = 1, b = (Z − XY /2)/Γ ).

Example 7.3.3 Subgroups of Lie groups As an application of the Frobenius

theorem, we will consider subgroups of Lie groups. We have seen that the
left-invariant vector fields on a Lie group G form a finite-dimenensional Lie
algebra g. We will see that subspaces of g which are closed under the Lie
bracket correspond exactly to connected smooth subgroups of G. In one di-
rection this is clear: Suppose H is a Lie group which is contained in G, with
the inclusion map being an immersion. Then the Lie algebra h of H is nat-
urally included in g, since for any left-invariant Lie algebra V on H, we can
extend to a left-invariant Lie algebra Ṽ on G by setting
Ṽg = D0 lg (Ve ).
Ṽ agrees with V on H. The image of this inclusion is a vector subspace of g.
Furthermore, if X, Y ∈ h then [X, Y ]˜ = [X̃, Ỹ ] is in this subspace of g. So we
have a subspace of g which is closed under Lie brackets.

Proposition 7.3.7 Let h be any vector subspace of g which is closed under

Lie brackets. Then there exists a unique connected Lie group H and an in-
clusion i : H → G which is an injective immersion, such that Dh i(Th H) is
the subspace of Ti(h) G given by the left-invariant vector fields in h, for every
h ∈ H.

Proof. Since h is closed under Lie brackets, the distribution D defined by the
vectors in h is involutive: If we take a basis {E1 , . . . , Ek } for h, then any
X, Y ∈ X (M ) can be written in the form X = X i Ei , Y = Y j Ej for some
smooth functions X 1 , . . . , X k and Y 1 , . . . , Y k . Then we have
[X, Y ] = [X i Ei , Y j Ej ] = (X i Ei (Y j ) − Y i Ei (X j ))Ej + X i Y j [Ei , Ej ]
which is in D. By Frobenius’ Theorem, there is a submanifold Σ passing
through e ∈ G with tangent space D.
To show that Σ is a subgroup, we show that xy ∈ Σ for all x and y in Σ:
Write y = exp(sY ) for Y ∈ De . Then

d d 
(x exp(sY )) = (x exp(sY ) exp(rY ))  = D0 lx exp(sY ) Y ∈ D
ds dr r=0
for each s. Thus the curve s → x exp(sY ) starts in Σ and is tangent to
D = T Σ, and so stays in Σ. Therefore xy ∈ Σ, and Σ is a subgroup.