Control Systems BEC403

MODULE -2
Transfer function:
The input- output relationship in a linear time invariant system is given by the transfer function. For a
time invariant system it is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of the out to the Lapalce transform
of the input

The important features of the transfer functions are,

 The transfer function of a system is the mathematical model expressing thedifferential

equation that relates the output to input of the system.

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 The transfer function is the property of a system independent of magnitude and the nature of
the input .
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The transfer function includes the transfer functions of the individual elements. But at the
same time, it does not provide any information regarding physical structure of the system
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 If the transfer function of the system is known, the output response can be studied for various
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types of inputs to understand the nature of the system

 It is applicable to Linear Time Invariant system.

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It is assumed that initial conditions are zero.

 It is independent of i/p excitation.
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 It is used to obtain systems o/p response.

 If the transfer function is unknown, it may be found out experimentally by applying known
inputs to the device and studying the output of the system

From the above block diagram G(S) = C(S) / E(S) &

E(S) = R(S) – B(S)
So, C(S) = G(S) .E(S)
= G(S)[ R(S)- B(S)
= G(S) [ R(S) – H(S).C(S)
Therefore,
C(S)/R(S) = G(S) / [1+ G(S).H(S)]
This is the transfer function of the closed loop control system

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Control Systems BEC403

Block Diagrammatic Representation

It is a representation of the control system giving the inter-relation between the transfer function of
various components. The block diagram is obtained after obtaining the differential equation & Transfer
function of all components of a control system. The arrow head pointing towards the block indicates
the i/p & pointing away from the block indicates the o/p.
Suppose G(S) is the Transfer function then G(S) = C(S) / R(S)

R(S) C(S)

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G (S)

Fig.2.1. Block Diagram Representation of a Transfer Function

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After obtaining the block diagram for each & every component, all blocks are combined to get a
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complete representation. It is then reduced to a simple form with the help of block diagram algebra.
Basic elements of a block diagram
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 Blocks
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 Transfer functions of elements inside the blocks

 Summing points
 Take off points
 Arrow

Fig 2.2. Basic elements of a Block Diagram

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Control Systems BEC403

A control system may consist of a number of components. A block diagram of a system is a pictorial
representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals. The elements
of a block diagram are block, branch point and summing point.
(a) Block :
In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks. The
functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal to the
block that produces the output.
OUTPUT
INPUT
BLOCK

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Fig.2.3 Block diagram
(b) Summing point:
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The blocks are used to identify many types of mathematical operations, like addition and subtraction
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and represented by a circle, called a summing point. As shown below diagram a summing point may
have one or several inputs. Each input has its own appropriate plus or minus sign. A summing point has
only one output and is equal to the algebraic sum of the inputs
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Fig.2.4 Summing Point

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Control Systems BEC403

Individual & Overall performance can be studied A takeoff point is used to allow a signal to be used
by more than one block or summing point
(c) Arrow – associated with each branch to indicate the direction of flow of signal

Advantages of Block Diagram Representation:

 It is always easy to construct the block diagram even for a complicated system
 Function of individual element can be visualized
 Over all transfer function can be calculated easily

Limitations of a Block Diagram Representation :

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 No information can be obtained about the physical construction
 Source of energy is not shown
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Block diagram reduction technique
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Because of the simplicity and versatility, the block diagrams are often used by control engineers to
describe all types of systems. A block diagram can be used simply to represent the composition and
interconnection of a system. Also, it can be used, together with transfer functions, to represent the cause-
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and-effect relationships throughout the system. Transfer Function is defined as the relationship between
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an input signal and an output signal to a device.

Procedure to solve Block Diagram Reductions:
Step 1: Reduce the blocks connected in series

Step 2: Reduce the blocks connected in parallel

Step 3: Reduce the minor feedback loops
Step 4: Try to shift take off points towards right and Summing point towards left
Step 5: Repeat steps 1 to 4 till simple form is obtained
Step 6: Obtain the Transfer Function of Overall System

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Control Systems BEC403

1.5.1 Block diagram rules

(1) Blocks in Cascade [Series]: When two blocks are connected in series , their resultant transfer
function is the product of two individual transfer functions.

Fig. 2.5 Blocks in Cascade

(2) Combining blocks in Parallel: When two blocks are connected parallel as shown below ,the

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resultant transfer function is equal to the algebraic sum (or difference) of the two transfer functions.
This is shown in the diagram below.

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Fig. 2.6 combining blocks in Parallel

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(3) Eliminating a feed back loop: The following diagram shows how to eliminate the feed back loop in
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the resultant control system

Fig: 2.7 Eliminating a feed back loop

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Control Systems 18EC43

(4) Moving a take-off point beyond a block: The effect of moving the takeoff point beyond a block is
shown below.

Fig: 2.8 Moving a take-off point beyond a block

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(5) Moving a Take-off point ahead of a block: The effect of moving the takeoff point ahead of a
block is shown below.

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Fig: 2.9 Moving a take-off point beyond a block

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Control Systems 18EC43

Properties of Systems

For any control system to understand its performance the following properties are very important.

(i).Linearity: A system is said to be linear if it follows both the law of addtivity and law of homogeneity.
The system which does not follow the law of homogeneity and additively is called a non-linear system.

If input x1(t) produces response y1(t) and input x2(t) produces response y2(t) then the scaled and summed
input a1x1(t) +b1x2(t) produces the scaled and summed response a1y1(t) +b1y2(t) where a1 and a2 are real
scalars. It follows that this can be extended to an arbitrary number of terms, and so for real numbers.

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(ii) Time Invariance : A system with input x(t) and output y(t) is time-invariant if x(t- t0) is creates
output y ( t – t0) for all inputs x and shifts t0.
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(iii) Causality : A system is causal, if the output y(t) at time t is not a function of future inputs and it
depends only on the present and past inputs . All analog systems are causal and all memeoryless systems
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are causal.

If the system is causal, then this implies h (t) = 0, t < 0. Alternatively, h[n] =0, n < 0.
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(iv) Stability : A system is said to be a stable if for every bounded-input there exists a bounded output
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1.10 Transfer Function

For a open loop control system shown below the transfer function is the ratio of Laplace transform of
the out-put to the Laplace transform of the input.

The Laplace transform of the Input is R(S) and the Laplace transform of the output is
C(S) .
R (t) C (t)
G (t)

2.10 Transfer Function

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Control Systems 18EC43

So,the Transfer function of the system is G(S) = C(S) / R(S)

Example : Find the transfer function of the following RC circuit

2.10a: Transfer Function

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2.10b: Transfer Function
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The Laplace transformed Network is shown above. From the circuit we can write that

Vo(S) = 1/ Cs * I(S) & Vi (S ) [ R + 1/Cs ]

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Cs * Vo (S) = Vi (S) / [ R + 1/Cs ]

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Vo(S )/ Vi (S ) = 1/ { [ R + 1/Cs ]} Cs

Vo(S )/ Vi (S ) = 1/ { [ 1 + RCs ]} = 1/ {
1+ τ s ]} Where τ = RC

Or the Transfer function G (S) = 1/ [1+

τ s]

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Control Systems 18EC43

Signal Flow Graphs (SFG)

The block diagram method is a useful tool for simplifying the representation of a control system. But
when there are more than two feed back loops and if there exists inter-coupling between feedback loops,
and when a system has more than one input and one output, the block diagram approach is very complex.
Hence an alternate method is proposed by S.J. Mason. This method is called signal flow graphs. In these
graphs each node represents a system variable & each branch connected between two nodes acts as
Signal Multiplier. The direction of signal flow is indicated by an arrow.

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous equations. It consists of a graph
in which nodes are connected by directed branches. The nodes represent each of the system variables.

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A branch connected between two nodes acts as a one-way signal multiplier: the direction of signal flow
is indicated by an arrow placed on the branch, and the multiplication factor (transmittance or transfer

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function) is indicated by a letter placed near the arrow.
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So,in the figure above , the branch transmits the signal x1 from left to right and multiplies it by the
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quantity a in the process. The quantity a is the transmittance, or transfer function.

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Flow-Graph Definitions : A node performs two functions:

 Addition of the signals on all incoming branches and Transmission of the total node signal
(the sum of all incoming signals) to all outgoing
branches
There are three types of nodes .They are Source nodes , Sink nodes and Mixed nodes

Source nodes (independent nodes) : These represent independent variables and have only outgoing
branches, nodes u and v are source nodes.

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Control Systems 18EC43

Sink nodes (dependent nodes): These represent dependent variables and have only incoming branches.
In Fig (a), nodes x and y are sink nodes.

Mixed nodes (general nodes): These have both incoming and outgoing branches. In Fig. (a), node w is
a mixed node. A mixed node may be treated as a sink node by adding an out going branch of unity
transmittance, as shown in Fig (b), for the equation x = au +bv

and w = cx = cau + cbv

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Fig(a) Fig (b)

A path is any connected sequence of branches whose arrows are in the same direction and A forward
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path between two nodes is one that follows the arrows of successive branches and in which a node
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appears only once. In Fig.(a) the path uwx is a forward path between the nodes u and x.

Flow-Graph Algebra : The following rules are useful for simplifying a signal flow graph:

Series paths (cascade nodes). Series paths can be combined into a single path by multiplying the
transmittances as shown in Fig ( A ).

Path gain. The product of the transmittances in a series path.

Parallel paths. Parallel paths can be combined by adding the transmittances as shown in Fig(B).

Feedback loop. Aclosed path that starts at a node and ends at the same node.

Loop gain. The product of the transmittances of a feedback loop.

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Control Systems 18EC43

These results are shown diagrammatically in the following figures (A) ,(B) and C) where the original
diagram and equivalent diagrams are shown.

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Masons gain formula

The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal flow graphis given by the
net gain between input and output nodes and is known as overall gain ofthe system. Masons gain
formula is used to obtain the over all gain (transfer function) of signal flow graphs. According to
Mason’s gain formula Gain is given by

P
P  1  1 1
 k 
Where, Pk is gain of k th forward path and Δ is determinant of graph. Here the Δ is given by
Δ = 1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible combinations of two
non touching loops –sum of gain products of all possible combination of three non touching loops)
Δk is cofactor of kth forward path determinant of graph with loops touching k th forward path. It is
obtained from Δ by removing the loops touching the path Pk.

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Control Systems 18EC43

Finding transfer function from the system flow graphs is explained below by example.

Example1 : Obtain the transfer function of the system whose signal flow graph is shown below.

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There are two forward paths: One is Gain of path 1: P1=G1 and the other is Gain of path 2: P2=G2
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There are four loops with loop gains:
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L1=-G1G3, L2=G1G4, L3= -G2G3, L4= G2G4

There are no non-touching loops.

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Δ = 1+G1G3-G1G4+G2G3-G2G4
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Forward paths 1 and 2 touch all the loops. Therefore, Δ1= 1, Δ2= 1

So,the transfer function T is given by

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Control Systems 18EC43

Example 2 : Obtain the transfer function of C(s) /R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph shown
below.

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From the system flow graph it is clear that

There is one forward path, whose gain is: P1=G1G2G3 C

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There are three loops with loop gains:
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L1=-G1G2H1, L2=G2G3H2, L3= -G1G2G3

There are no non-touching loops: Δ = 1-G1G2H1+G2G3H2+G1G2G3

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Forward path 1 touches all the loops. Therefore, Δ1= 1.

The transfer function T is given by

C(S) P11 G1G2G3


R(S)  1  G1G2H1 G1G3H 2  G1G2G3

System Stability:

The study of stability of a control system is very important to understand the performance . This means
that the system must be stable at all times during operation. Stability may be used to define the
usefulness of the system. Stability studies include absolute & relative stability. Absolute stability is the
quality of stable or unstable performance. Relative Stability is the quantitative study of stability.

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Control Systems 18EC43

The stability study is based on the properties of the Transfer Function. In the analysis, the characteristic
equation is very important ,which describe the transient response of the system. From the roots of the
characteristic equation, following conclusions about the stability can be drawn.

(1) When all the roots of the characteristic equation lie in the left half of the S-plane, the system

response due to initial condition will decrease to zero at time Thus the system will be termed as a stable
system.

(2) When one or more roots lie on the imaginary axis & there are no roots on the RHS of

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S-plane, the response will be oscillatory without damping. Such a system will be termed as critically
stable.

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(3) When one or more roots lie on the RHS of S-plane, the response will exponentially increase
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in magnitude and there by the system will be Unstable.
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Outcomes

 Able to design basic structure of control system.

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 Students will analyze the application of Open loop and closed loop systems.
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 Students should be able to design basic structure of control system using Block
diagram reduction technique.
 Analyze the importance of Signal Flow graph using the Mason’s formula.

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Control Systems 18EC43

Recommended Questions

1. Name three applications of control systems.

2. Name three reasons for using feedback control systems and at least one reason for not
using them.
3. Give three examples of open- loop systems.
4. Functionally, how do closed – loop systems differ from open loop systems.
5. State one condition under which the error signal of a feedback control system would not
be the difference between the input and output.

6. Name two advantages of having a computer in the loop.

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7. Name the three major design criteria for control systems.
8. Name the two parts of a system‘s response.

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9. Physically, what happens to a system that is unstable?
10. Instability is attributable to what part of the total response.
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11. What mathematical model permits easy interconnection of physical systems?
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12. To what classification of systems can the transfer function be best applied?

13. What transformation turns the solution of differential equations into algebraic
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manipulations ?
14. Define the transfer function.
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15. What assumption is made concerning initial conditions when dealing with transfer
functions?
16. What do we call the mechanical equations written in order to evaluate the transfer
function ?
17. Why do transfer functions for mechanical networks look identical to transfer functions
for electrical network.

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