Commonwealth of Learning Executive MBA/MPA

C3 Human Resource Management

Block 5

Job Analysis and Job Design

Course Developer: Lalith Weeratunga
Senior Consultant
Postgraduate Institute of Management
University of Sri Jayewardenepura
Columbo, Sri Lanka

Copyright Commonwealth of Learning, 2003

All rights reserved. No part of this course may be reproduced in any form by any means
without prior permission in writing from:
The Commonwealth of Learning
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Vancouver, BC V6H 3X8
CANADA
e-mail: [email protected]
 Contents
1 Objectives................................................................................................................... 4
2 What Is Job Analysis (JA)?...................................................................................... 4
2.1 Definition ............................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Creating a Job ..................................................................................................... 5
2.3 How JA Is Carried Out ....................................................................................... 6
2.4 Why Conduct JA? ............................................................................................... 7
2.5 Major Uses of JA Information ............................................................................ 7
2.5.1 Job Description............................................................................................... 7
2.5.2 Job Specification............................................................................................. 7
2.5.3 Job Classification and Job Evaluation ........................................................... 7
2.5.4 Job Design ...................................................................................................... 8
2.5.5 Performance Appraisal................................................................................... 8
2.5.6 Benefits of JA .................................................................................................. 8
2.6 Collecting Job Data............................................................................................. 9
2.6.1 Data Collecting Techniques............................................................................ 9
2.7 JA methods........................................................................................................ 11
2.7.1 Work-Oriented Approaches .......................................................................... 12
2.7.2 Worker-Oriented Approaches....................................................................... 13
2.7.3 Evaluation of Traditional Methods............................................................... 16
2.8 Recent Trends in Job Analysis.......................................................................... 16
3 Job Design................................................................................................................ 17
3.1.1 Work Simplification ...................................................................................... 17
3.1.2 Job Rotation .................................................................................................. 18
3.1.3 Job Enlargement ........................................................................................... 18
3.1.4 Job Enrichment ............................................................................................. 18
3.2 Perspectives on the Design of Work................................................................. 18
3.2.1 Scientific Management and the Mechanistic Approach................................ 19
3.2.2 Job Enrichment as a Motivational Approach ............................................... 19
3.2.3 Job Design: The Next Challenge .................................................................. 21
4 Job Descriptions and Job Specifications............................................................... 21
5 Summary.................................................................................................................. 23
6 References and Further Reading........................................................................... 24
1 Objectives
After studying Block 5 in this course, you will be able to:
• discuss what role Job Analysis (JA) plays and its effect on employment planning
• show competency with the tools and techniques of Job Analysis
• name various ways in which jobs can be designed, and propose the best way for
the organisation in which you work
• prepare job descriptions.

2 What Is Job Analysis (JA)?

Gatewood and Feild (1994) observed that there are probably as many different definitions
of job analysis as there are writings on the topic. They suggested a definition that views
job analysis as ‘a purposeful, systematic process for collecting information on the
important work-related aspects of a job.’ Others have characterised job analysis as the
collection and analysis of just about any type of job-related information by almost any
method for any purpose.
For you to grasp the essentials of JA, you should adopt a definition that views JA as a
systematic process for collecting, analysing and interpreting job-related information.
Part of the problem in defining JA stems from a difficulty we have with the term job.
Most of us seem to mean something fairly specific when we talk about a job. Ordinarily,
we mean the job that we do on a day-to-day basis – the thing that gives us the paycheque.
Experts in HRM do not use the term in the same way.

2.1 Definition
Job Analysis is the aspect of employment planning which is concerned with the study of
the jobs in an enterprise. In particular, job analysis and the resultant job specifications
clarify the following aspects of each job: the work activities; the tools, equipment, and
work aids used; job-related tangibles and intangibles (such as materials used, products
made, services rendered); work performance; job context (working conditions); and
candidate requirements (such as knowledge, skills, experience and personal attributes).
In JA, the following information is gathered (Glueck 1978):
1. Work activities:
Work activities and processes
Activity records
Procedures used
Personal responsibility

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 2. Worker-oriented activities:
Human behaviours such as physical actions and communicating on the job
Elemental motions for methods analysis
Personal job demands, such as energy expenditure
3. Machines, tools, equipment and work aids used
4. Job-related tangibles and intangibles:
Knowledge dealt with or applied (as in accounting)
Materials processed
Products made or services performed
5. Work performance (Note: Not all JA systems develop the work performance
aspects):
Error analysis
Work standards
Work measurements, such as time taken for a task
6. Job Context:
Work schedule
Financial and non-financial incentives
Physical working conditions
Organisational and social contexts
7. Personnel requirements for the job:
Personal attributes such as personality, interests
Education and training required
Work experience
This information can be in the form of qualitative, verbal, narrative descriptions or
quantitative measurements of each item, such as error rates per unit of time or noise level.

Activity
Considering your job, list what aspects of it need to be examined in order to carry out a
job analysis.

2.2 Creating a Job

Most jobs are allocated on a fairly crude basis. The manager of a unit sees a number of
tasks that need to be done and allocates them to individuals on the strength of his own
judgement. A new job may well be discussed with his superior manager, and possibly

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with someone from the personnel department, but invariably it is the unit manager’s
perception of the need for, and the nature of, the post that exerts the greatest influence on
the decision to add the job to the structure. As the requirements for tasks change, so jobs
change, mainly in response to the demands of the immediate management concerned.
Only certain kinds of jobs are created in a completely rational way. These are the jobs
composed of routine, easily measurable tasks to be found in many production and clerical
departments.
Most other jobs, and certainly those requiring a high degree of judgement or discretion,
cannot be created in a once-and-for all manner. Such jobs have to develop and grow as
they are performed. Naturally, over a period of time, a job can change considerably
without anyone really noticing it. Thus, when a review of the organisation takes place,
the managers concerned have to take steps to redefine the job in the light of the changed
circumstances. This is where JA comes in.

2.3 How JA Is Carried Out

JA can use one or many of the following seven methods (Glueck, 1978):
1. Examination of previous job analyses or job descriptions on the position and/or
other records
2. Observation of the job and the job occupant
3. Interviewing the job occupant and/or supervision by a single analyst or a group of
them
4. Structured or open-ended questionnaires to be completed by job occupants and/or
supervisors
5. Self-recording of data and observations, in a log or diary kept by the job occupant
6. Recording of job activities on film or with audio means
7. Analysing equipment design information from blueprints and design data.
Methods 1, 4 and 7 are the quickest but may develop less reliable data than other
methods. Methods 2, 3, 5 and 6 are more accurate but more costly. As far as observation
and other data gathering techniques are concerned, it has been found that proper work-
sampling techniques add to the quality of the data’s reliability and validity. The most
advanced job analysis work is being done by the U.S Training and Employment Service
and the Personnel Division of the Air Force Human Resources Lab.

Self-Assessment Question
With reference to your organisation, what methods do you consider most appropriate to
carrying out a JA? Give reasons.

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2.4 Why Conduct JA?
Ghorpade & Atchison (1980, 134-144) describe JA as a fundamental starting point for
HR management. This description of JA arises due to employers’ interest to ensure that
their employees are working efficiently, in the face of stiff competition from local as well
as global competition. As technology has influenced jobs, employers are continuously on
the lookout for employees with requisite knowledge, skills and abilities to perform
adequately. The main reason why JA should be carried out in organisations is that it
provides information that can help employers locate and identify these employees.
JA information can be used in each phase of the human resource management cycle, viz.,
job design, job classification and evaluation, recruitment, selection, training, performance
appraisal and performance management. You should now be able to understand the
importance of JA to the HR management process.

Activity
Show the application of JA data in the HRM process.

2.5 Major Uses of JA Information

JA provides a range of information in regard to jobs in organisations. The information derived
include the following: job description, job specification, job classification and job evaluation, job
design, and performance appraisal. Let us take each of these and discuss the use of each in HRM.
2.5.1 Job Description
A job description is an account of the duties and activities associated with a particular job. A job
description is prepared to identify a job, define that job within established limits, and describe its
content. It is typically a one or two page summary of the basic tasks performed on a job and
constitutes the role expectations relative to that job. Job descriptions have a number of important
uses including development of job specifications, work force planning and recruitment, orienta-
tion of new employees, and development of performance appraisal systems.
2.5.2 Job Specification
A job specification describes the characteristics required to perform the job activities outlined in
the job description. They focus on the persons performing the job rather than on the work itself.
A job specification may also include information on the knowledge, skills, and abilities required
to perform the job, as well as such items as the education, experience, and physical attributes
needed for successful accomplishment of job tasks. Job specifications are the means by which
HRM specialists identify persons with the skills they seek and help focus efforts to recruit them.
2.5.3 Job Classification and Job Evaluation
Often HRM specialists mention both job classification and job evaluation in the same breath.
You must clearly understand the difference between the two. Classification means grouping

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similar positions into job classes and grouping job classes into job families. Among many
reasons for grouping jobs, one is simplicity. Grouping positions into job classifications allows
HRM specialists to deal with personnel functions at a more general level.
On the other hand, the process of assigning a value (and a salary) to a given job classification is
called job evaluation. Two basic approaches to job evaluation are commonly adopted. One
involves comparing an organisation’s pay practices to those of other organisations. This
approach is often referred to as the market pricing method. The second approach involves rating
jobs on the basis of factors that indicate the relative worth of different jobs within the
organisation. This approach has been called the factor comparison or point factor method. Both
methods rely heavily on job analysis data.
2.5.4 Job Design
Another use for job analysis data concerns the design of jobs. From the organisation’s viewpoint,
jobs as performed must lead to efficient operations, quality products, and well-maintained
equipment. From the workers’ viewpoint, jobs must be meaningful and challenging, provide
feedback on performance, and call on their decision-making skills (Davis & Wacker, 1988). The
aim of the HRM specialists is to design jobs that attempt to meet the needs of both employers
and employees. Efficient job design allows organisations to take full advantage of technological
breakthroughs without alienating the workers affected by change. Restructuring jobs allows
companies to retain skilled workers while enhancing output.
2.5.5 Performance Appraisal
Lastly, information generated from job analysis is used to prepare instruments for performance
appraisal which are used to evaluate employee performance. Job analysis identifies what
activities should be assessed, what knowledge should be appraised, what organisational issues
(i.e. tardiness, absenteeism) should be evaluated. Job analysis information can then determine the
weights assigned to particular aspects of the job in order of importance.
If used properly, job analysis ensures that the appraisal instrument assesses what is actually
being done on the job. A good match between the job and the performance appraisal assessment
not only should improve organisational efficiency but should also enhance employee perceptions
of fairness in the appraisal system. Performance appraisals not based on solid job analysis
information risk being irrelevant to job performance and consequently demotivating employees.
2.5.6 Benefits of JA
As much as there are benefits towards management, especially towards line management, there
are also benefits to individuals from job analysis. These are:
• The individual job holder obtains a clear idea of his main responsibilities
• It provides the individual with a basis for arguing for changes or improvements in
his job (e.g., job redesign)
• It provides the individual with relevant information in respect of any appraisal he
or she may have.
• It may provide the individual with an opportunity to participate in setting his own

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 short-term targets or objectives.

2.6 Collecting Job Data

JA involves collecting data about the job; it is a systematic process for collecting, analysing, and
interpreting job-related information. Information involving job content, work method and
approach, and expected outcome is collected and analysed. To make JA more informative, the
knowledge, skills, and abilities that workers require to perform their jobs may also be identified
and analysed. Those who perform these JA tasks are called Job Analysts. Job analysts need
special training and usually it is the internal HR specialists who perform these tasks with some
training.
In conducting a comprehensive job survey, a job analyst needs to explore many different sources,
such as technical manuals, organisation studies, and training materials. They also have to consult
job incumbents, supervisors, and technical specialists who provide information about jobs being
studied.
2.6.1 Data Collecting Techniques
There are numerous ways in which data could be collected. However, HR specialists adopt the
method depending on the circumstances; jobs with substantial physical demands require different
data collection methods while those requiring mental skills demand some other technique. Some
jobs require extensive documentation while some others do not. The determining factor is the job
characteristics. In general, JA methods require the following data collection techniques:
background research, performance of the job, site observations, individual interviews, group
interviews, and job analysis questionnaires. It would be useful for you to look at these in a little
more detail.
Background research: It should be the first step in any JA process and involves a review of job-
relevant documents. Any previous job analyses or studies of the job under review could be
examined and in addition certain standard literature on jobs such as Dictionary of Occupational
Titles (US Dept. of Labour), Journal of Applied Psychology, and Personal Psychology.
Familiarity with past research helps the analyst choose the most appropriate data collecting
technique. The review of professional literature should be followed by an examination of
existing job descriptions, technical manuals, training materials, organisation charts, and previous
job analyses.
Job performance: Performing the job may be the best way to collect data especially when the
job involves physical operations or psychomotor skills. For example, jobs involving equipment
operation that demands hand-eye coordination may actually require performing the task to for an
analyst to fully understand the nature of the job. In practice, this may require a lot of time to train
the analyst to perform the job. Therefore, it may be more efficient to rely on observation or
interview technique.
Site observations: Visiting job sites will help the analyst to observe the specifics of task
performance. The site observations will help the analyst further to familiarise himself with
materials and equipment used for the performance of the job and the conditions under which the
job has to be performed. However, an analyst should be careful so as not to be obtrusive and

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should explain the purpose of the visit to the job performer. You would no doubt appreciate that
this method is not appropriate for jobs involving mental tasks, particularly jobs of upper level
managers.
Individual interviews: Interviewing job incumbents is often done in combination with
observation. Interviews are probably the technique used most widely in collecting data for job
analysis. They permit the job analyst to talk face to face with job incumbents. The job incumbent
too can ask questions from the job analyst, and this interview serves as opportunity for the
analyst to explain how the knowledge and information gained from the job analysis will be used.
The interviews can be structured or unstructured. Interviews may be conducted concurrently with
the site visit.
Group interviews: In this technique, subject matter experts are convened to discuss the job in
question. Typically, job incumbents and supervisors act as experts as they understand the finer
points of the jobs. As in individual interviews, the group interviews also could be structured or
unstructured. Job analyst should take precautions to ensure that the sessions produce the
necessary information.
Questionnaires: This is the least costly method for collecting information. It is an effective way
to collect a large amount of information in a short period of time. A questionnaire presents a list
of items that are assumed to be job related and asks subject matter specialists to rate each item on
its relevance to the job under study. It generally includes specific questions about the job, job
requirements, working conditions, and equipment. A less structured, more open-ended approach
would be to ask job incumbents to describe their job in their own terms.
The format and degree of structure that a questionnaire should have are debatable issues. Job
analysts have their own personal preferences on this matter. You may use a commercially
available questionnaire, or use one that is tailored to fit the job under review. It is here that
information derived from background research, job performance, site observations, individual
interviews and group interviews may be very useful.
Here are a few hints that will make the questionnaire easier to use. (Ivancevich, 1998, p.178).
• Keep it as short as possible – people do not generally like to complete forms.
• Explain what the questionnaire is being used for – people want to know why it
must be completed. Employees want to know how their responses would be used.
• Keep it simple – do not try to impress people with technical language. Use the
simplest language to make point or ask a question.
• Test the questionnaire before using it – in order to improve the questionnaire, ask
some job incumbents to complete it and to comment on its features. This test will
permit the analyst to modify the format before using the questionnaire in final
form.
Job incumbent Diary or Log: The diary or log is a recording by job incumbents of job duties,
frequency of the duties, and when the duties are accomplished. Unfortunately, most individuals
are not disciplined enough to keep a diary or log containing this kind of information. If a diary or
log is kept up to date, it can provide good information. This method provides valuable

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information regarding jobs that are difficult to observe, such as those of engineers, scientists and
senior executives.

Activity
Suppose you are appointed a consultant to carry out a JA in your organisation. Prepare a
questionnaire using the above mentioned guidelines to collect data of jobs in the clerical
(non-managerial) grades.

2.7 JA methods
Although any of these basic methods can be used either alone or in combination, there is no
general agreement about one best method which will yield the most valuable information. In the
absence of a strong theoretical reason why one method should be superior to another, most
organisations base their choice on their current needs. In other words, the choice of the method is
determined by circumstances such as the purpose of the analysis and time and budget constraints.
Job analysts commonly combine methods of data collection to obtain a true and full picture of
the job under study. Most approaches to job analysis mix and match various job data sources and
data collection techniques. Since these methods seem to have different strengths and weaknesses,
many organisations are turning to a multi-method job analysis approach (Schneider and Konz
1989, 51-63). In this approach, the job analyst first conducts interviews with incumbents and
supervisors parallel to on-site observation. Next, a task survey based on expert judgements is
constructed and administered. Finally, a statistical analysis of the responses to the task survey is
carried out to assess their consistency and to identify any systematic variation in them. However,
this approach, which is comprehensive, will be relatively expensive and time-consuming. But,
there is one distinct advantage over any of the basic methods used alone: the quality of
information derived is strongly endorsed by the courts in cases that rely on job analysis
information.
The job analysis methods presented in this block have systematic ways of formally applying data
collection techniques. Formal means that the data collection procedure, and the organisation of
the end product, is standardised. For example, in the individual interview, the job analyst is
consistent in the questions asked of different subject matter experts. Further, the data that
emerges from the interview is generally structured into precise job statements that would be
understandable to someone unfamiliar with the job. Systematic means that data collection
techniques proceed in a set pattern. For example, several current approaches to job analysis
progress from background research to individual interviews or observation, group interviews,
and ultimately questionnaire administration.
Since a variety of systems have evolved, this courses present an approach most commonly
encountered - the distinction between work-oriented and worker-oriented methods.
• Work-oriented job analysis focuses on a description of the work activities
performed on a job. Emphasis is on what is accomplished, including a description
of the tasks undertaken and the products or outcomes of those tasks. For example,

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 a work-oriented analysis of a clerical or secretarial position may provide
observable tasks such as ‘prepares letters,’ ‘types letters’ or ‘files documents.’
This approach is also known as by other names, such as task-oriented and
activity-based job analysis.
• Worker-oriented job analysis examines the attributes or characteristics the
worker must possess to perform certain job tasks. The primary products of work-
oriented methods are the Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSAs) and other
characteristics required for effective job performance. A worker-oriented analysis
of a secretarial position might generate worker characteristics such as ‘skill in
typing’ or ‘knowledge of the organisation’s filing system.’ Until recently, worker-
oriented approaches dominated the field.
Now examine each approach in a bit more detail before going on to consider their relative pros
and cons.
2.7.1 Work-Oriented Approaches
There are two methods described under this. They are Functional Job Analysis and Critical
Incidents Technique. The following presents details about each of these.
Functional Job Analysis
Functional Job Analysis (FJA) is the cumulative result of approximately 50 years of research on
analysing and describing jobs. It provides an approach that takes into consideration the
organisation, its people, and its work. The main focus of the FJA is to create a common language
for accurately describing a large number of jobs in ways that can be reliably reproduced by other
experts.
FJA assumes that jobs can be described in terms of three basic relationships that the incumbent
has with his or her work. In order to complete the tasks involved in a job, the employee must
physically relate to ‘things,’ use mental resources to process ‘data,’ and interact with ‘people.’
The extent to which a job involves each of these components forms the basis for a job
description prepared with FJA.
The FJA approach uses three data collection techniques, including a review by trained analysts
of background and reference materials, interviews with employees and their supervisors, and on-
site observations of employees. From this data collection, the purpose, goals, and objectives of
the organisation are identified. Once analysts have gained an understanding of the organisation’s
work system, they develop task statements in consultation with subject matter experts.
To ensure validity and reliability, analysts edit the task statements with the guidance of
incumbents, supervisors, and other subject matter experts. From the task statements, worker
functions are identified, primarily through inferences made by analysts. Finally, FJA attempts to
place the individual job clearly in the context of the whole organisation by focusing on the
results of task performance and the way those results contribute to the attainment of
organisational goals and objectives.
The two most prominent features of FJA are its formal task statements and worker function
scales. FJA’s task statements include information on a variety of factors. The second feature,

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worker function scales, is probably the most widely applied of the two because of its adoption in
the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) published by the U.S. Department of Labour.
Current versions of the DOT use the basic descriptive language of FJA to describe more than
20,000 jobs. The DOT classifies these jobs by means of a nine-digit code. If you are interested in
a general description of a job, the DOT serves as a good starting point.
The worker function scales identify differing levels of complexity in three areas of task
performance: things, data, and people. Tasks are assessed as to the degree of complexity
involved in each of the three areas. Using behavioural terms, each of these relationships with
work can be organised along a continuum of complexity (lowest to highest).
FJA is an important job analysis system in its own right. However, it is also important for its
influence on subsequent systems. One advantage of the FJA is that each job has a quantitative
score. Thus, jobs can be arranged for compensation or other HRM purposes because jobs with
similar ratings are assumed to be similar. If you are interested learning more about this method,
please refer, Fine & Getkate (1995).
Critical Incidents Technique
Developed by John Flanagan (1954), the Critical Incidents Technique (CIT) for job analysis
relies on information from supervisors and others who are in a position to observe job behaviour.
In this technique, personnel specialists and operating managers (supervisors) prepare lists of
statements of very effective and very ineffective behaviour for an employee. These are the
critical incidents. A job analyst would ask supervisors to identify and classify those behaviours
(critical incidents) that result in effective or ineffective job performance. In this technique
examples of particularly successful and unsuccessful job performance are used as guides for
future performance. Critical incidents represent a high level of behavioural detail, focusing on
the action of the worker, the context in which the behaviour occurs, and the consequences of the
behaviour. CIT is widely applied in performance appraisal because of this specificity.
Other suggested uses for the technique include training and job design. One very interesting
development noted by Gatewood and Feild (1994) is that CIT can prove useful in the
development of structured oral interviews. They recommend conducting a traditional selection-
oriented job analysis as a first step in determining interview content. Individual interview
questions are then generated using CIT. A major advantage of this approach is the creation of
more objective rating scales through the use of critical incidents as anchors for illustrating
effective and ineffective responses.
2.7.2 Worker-Oriented Approaches
Under this category, three methods will be discussed. Those are Position Analysis Questionnaire,
Job Element Method, and Threshold Traits Analysis.
Position Analysis Questionnaire: A structured questionnaire for quantitatively assessing jobs
was developed by researchers at Purdue University. It is called the Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ). The PAQ contains 194 items, organised into six major categories:
1. Information input – Where and how does the job incumbent get job information?

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 2. Mental processes – What reasoning, decision-making, and planning processes are
used to perform the job?
3. Work output -- What physical activities and tools are used to perform the job?
4. Job context – In what physical and social context is the job performed?
5. Relationship with other people (interpersonal activities) – What relationships with
others are required to perform the job?
6. Other job characteristics – What activities, conditions, or characteristics other than
those described in sections 1-5 are relevant?
Seven job dimensions are contained in each of the above. Computerised programmes are
available for scoring PAQ ratings on the basis of these seven dimensions:
1. Decision making
2. Communication
3. Social responsibilities
4. Performing skilled activities
5. Being physically active
6. Operating vehicles or equipment
7. Processing information
These scores permit the development of profiles for jobs analysed and the comparison of jobs.
The PAQ is perhaps the most widely used and researched job analysis approach. The PAQ is a
very structured job analysis questionnaire. The available evidence indicates that it can be an
effective technique for a variety of intended purposes. It is reliable in that there is little variance
among job analysts’ ratings of same jobs. However, a major problem is its length and thus
requires time and patience to complete. In terms of content, some research suggests that the PAQ
is capable only of measuring job stereotypes. If this is true, then the PAQ may be providing little
more than common knowledge about a job (Ivancevich, 1998).

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Job Element Method
The Job Element Method represents a unique approach to job analysis; it focuses on worker
characteristics rather than on job activities. The Job Element Method identifies skills,
knowledge, inclinations, and other characteristics of employees in a particular job classification.
This method typically relies not on job analysts to gather information but rather on a group of
approximately six job incumbents, supervisors, or both who are familiar enough with the job
under study to be able to easily recognise the characteristics of superior workers (Feild &
Gatewood, 1989). These factors are organised into the following six broad categories of job
elements:
• a knowledge, such as knowledge of accounting principles;
• a skill, such as skill with woodworking tools;
• an ability, such as ability to manage a program;
• a willingness, such as willingness to do simple tasks repetitively;
• an interest, such as an interest in learning new techniques; or
• a personal characteristic, such as reliability or dependability.
Once the job elements have been identified, the subject matter experts generate a corresponding
list of sub-elements for each element. Subject matter experts then rate the job elements and sub-
elements along a series of dimensions that are designed to measure the correlation between
success on the job and possession of each job element. Through this correlation, the Job Element
Method attempts to identify the characteristics that, if possessed by an individual, will probably
result in superior job performance.
Threshold Traits analysis
The Threshold Traits Analysis System (TTAS) differs from other worker-oriented approaches in
that it hypothesises that there are thirty-three relatively enduring traits related to the performance
of a large number of different jobs. These traits are divided into two broad classes: ability and
attitude. Ability-oriented traits are considered ‘can do’ factors, whereas attitudinal traits are
‘willing to do’ factors. Within TTAS, traits are assessed for six characteristics:
• level –refers to a trait’s complexity
• practicality –relates to the estimated proportion of job applicants thought to
possess a given trait
• weight –an index of the impact of a particular trait on overall job performance
• degree –represents a four-grade assessment of a person’s possession of a trait,
ranging from unacceptable to superior
• criticality –refers to the relationship between possession of a trait and overall job
performance
• availability –describes the supply/demand ratio of each trait level in the
employer’s labour market

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In TTAS, the heart of the job analysis is the evaluation of traits. This technique demands that
incumbents, supervisors, or other subject matter experts rate the relevance, level, and practicality
of each of the thirty- three traits. These ratings are analysed to produce a basic functional
description of the job. The functional job description then serves as the foundation for selection,
training, performance evaluation, and compensation.

Activity
List the advantages and disadvantages of each JA method described above.

2.7.3 Evaluation of Traditional Methods

Several factors have given rise to an increased preference for multi method job analysis
approaches. Some of the factors include: level of task specificity and communicability. Research
on job analysis in this realm has been restricted largely to job analysts’ evaluation of method
effectiveness. Unfortunately, research has not yet answered the question of which job analysis
system is the best. You may note that legal considerations would seem to favour multi method
approaches. Also, several researchers have advanced conceptual and measurement-oriented
arguments for adopting multi method approaches to job analysis.

2.8 Recent Trends in Job Analysis

In the United States, with the Americans with Disabilities Act coming into force, HR managers
are finding it more difficult to consider certain physical ability requirements long taken for
granted, such as normal vision and hearing, as essential. Such requirements can be applied only
if an employer can provide documentary proof that they are essential for an employee to perform
‘essential job functions.’ It must be clear to you that this is no easy task. In fact, the identification
of the essential functions themselves must be carried out through task-oriented or multi-method
job analysis. The linkage between essential functions and requisite knowledge, skills, mental
abilities, and physical abilities can best be established through a multi-method job analysis
process. Obviously, job analysis methods that do not capture information salient to the
essentiality of job functions and underlying mental and physical abilities would fail to protect
employers from law suits.
A second recent trend in job analysis methodology is a move toward increased specificity in
descriptions of job tasks and of the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) needed on a job as a
means of ensuring content validity in testing. Job analysis systems that emphasise increased
specificity and take account of sensory and psychomotor abilities would seem to meet the job
analysis needs of most organisations in the current regulatory and legal environment. New
approaches introduced in the coming years would incorporate essentials of these two trends.

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3 Job Design
Once a thorough JA has been conducted and there are high-quality job descriptions and job
specifications available, an organisation can use this information to design or re-design jobs.
This information is very useful for structuring job elements, duties and tasks in a manner that
will help to achieve optimal performance and satisfaction.
There is, however, no one best way to design a job. Different situations call for different
arrangements of job characteristics. In addition, approaches to job design place different
emphases on performance and satisfaction as desired outcomes. In other words, certain methods
of job design primarily focus on improving performance while others concentrate on satisfaction.
You will therefore see that no one approach will fully satisfy all of the goals of a manager. It
should be evident to you that job design will involve making trade-offs based on the more critical
needs of the organisation.
3.1 Definition
Job design is the personnel or engineering activity of specifying the
contents of the job, the tools and techniques to be used, the surroundings
of the work, and the relationship of one job to other jobs.
In other words, the aspect of personnel or industrial engineering that directly affects the degree
of specialisation of the job and the psychological dimensions of the task is called job design.
Human factors engineering (ergonomics) and industrial psychology are concerned with whatever
affects job design. They also study how human limitations affect efficiency. It has been found,
for example, that fatigue can affect output: work speed and accuracy decrease as the work period
increases. Another finding is that mental fatigue, which affects performance, is a result of certain
kinds of work being performed at length. These are the types of factors studied by engineers in
their design or redesign of jobs.
HR and operating managers are involved in other kinds of job design. For example, they help
determine the amount of variety in the job, as well as the amount of responsibility and autonomy.
Both theory and research indicate that this aspect of job design has an impact on motivation and
performance.
There are four approaches to those aspects of job design that affect the degree of specialisation
and the psychological dimensions of work. These are work simplification, job rotation, job
enlargement, and job enrichment.
3.1.1 Work Simplification
This job design leads to very specialised jobs. In the work simplification approach, the complete
job (such as making a car) is broken down into small subparts, usually consisting of a few
operations. This is done because:
• Less well-trained and less well-paid employees can do these jobs
• More workers are available for hire, since there are more unskilled than skilled
workers

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 • By repeating the same operations over and over, the employee gets better at it
• Many small jobs can be performed simultaneously, so that the complete operation
can be done more quickly.
3.1.2 Job Rotation
In job rotation, the employees take turns at several work simplified jobs. Job rotation provides
more flexible work assignments, makes it easier to staff the more unpleasant jobs (or heavier
jobs), and reduces the boredom and monotony of the work simplified jobs.
3.1.3 Job Enlargement
This is the opposite of work simplification. If the work simplified job consisted of three
operations, the job enlargement approach expands assignment until a meaningful subunit (or
subprocess) is completed by one person. The theory is that ‘whole’ jobs reduce boredom
(through more variety) and give more meaning to work. Job enlargement attempts to increase
satisfaction by giving employees a greater variety of things to do. The expansion of the work is,
however, considered horizontal, since the employees are not given more responsibility or
authority in decision-making. Rather, they are merely allowed to do a greater number of tasks.
Thus, an enlarged job is not as specialised or routine as a job designed according to scientific
management, but it may not be any more meaningful.
3.1.4 Job Enrichment
Job enrichment increases the responsibility of the employees and gives them more autonomy and
freedom of control. Rather than merely increasing the variety of tasks performed by an
employee, job enrichment tries to design jobs in ways that help incumbents satisfy their needs for
growth, recognition and responsibility. Thus, enrichment differs from enlargement because the
job is expanded vertically; employees are given responsibility that might have previously been
part of a supervisor’s job.
Obviously, there can be a combination of several of these strategies. For example, a likely
combination is job enrichment and job enlargement.

3.2 Perspectives on the Design of Work

Another approach to design of work involves four major categories:
1. The perceptual-motor approach
2. The biological approach
3. The mechanistic approach
4. The motivational approach
Both the perceptual-motor approach and the biological approach have their roots in human
factors engineering. Their major focus is on the integration of human and machine systems.

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Therefore, their emphasis is on equipment design and the proper match between machines and
operators.
The other two approaches clearly highlight the potential trade-offs that must frequently be made
by organisations with regard to job design. They are also the two that have received the most
attention in the management literature. Taylor’s scientific management, and the motivational
approach by job enrichment best exemplify the mechanistic approach.
3.2.1 Scientific Management and the Mechanistic Approach
Job design was a central issue in Fredrick Taylor’s model of scientific management. His use of
job design shows how certain perspectives focus more heavily on productivity than on
satisfaction.
Taylor’s work emphasised the structuring of jobs – work to be broken down into simple,
repetitive tasks. Once learned, these tasks could be done quickly and efficiently. Introduced in
the early 1900s, many of the principles of scientific management are still relevant today although
current methods of JA criticise the use of repetitive-task structure:
• Work should be studied scientifically. (This is what JA attempts to do.)
• Work should be arranged so that workers could be efficient.
• Employees selected for work should be matched to the demands of the job. (Job
descriptions and job specifications used in recruitment and selection should
achieve this.)
• Employees should be trained to perform the job.
• Monetary compensation should be tied directly to performance and should be
used to reward the performance of employees.
Why do many managers find this approach appealing? It is because these kinds of
recommendations lead to improving organisational performance. However, research has found
that repetitive, highly specialised work can lead to dissatisfaction among employees. You would
have noticed that in your organisations too, there are situations where gains in efficiency that
scientific management offers can be offset by losses in satisfaction and higher levels of
absenteeism and turnover.
Early strategies for overcoming some of the problems associated with jobs designed according to
scientific management focused on job enlargement.
3.2.2 Job Enrichment as a Motivational Approach
The notion of satisfying employees’ needs as a way of designing jobs comes from Frederic
Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation (1959). This theory tries to find out what people want
from work. According to this theory, two sets of factors influence work behaviour: dissatisfiers
(hygiene factors) and satisfiers (motivators). Hygiene factors relate to the context of jobs and
include pay, working conditions, supervision etc. They do not motivate. Motivators include
factors like achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, growth and the work itself.

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Motivators become operational only when dissatisfiers are removed. His basic idea is that
employees will be motivated by jobs that enhance their feelings of self-worth.
Although there are many different approaches to job enrichment, the job characteristics model is
one of the most widely publicised (Hackman & Oldham 1976, 250-279). The model proposes
that for a job to lead to desired outcomes it must possess certain’core job dimensions.’ These are:
• Skill variety – degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities in
carrying out the work, which involves the use of a number of an individual’s
skills and talents.
• Task identity – degree to which the job requires completion of a ‘whole’ and
identifiable piece of work – that is, doing a job from beginning to end with a
visible outcome.
• Task significance – degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives
or work of other people, whether in the immediate organisation or in the external
environment.
• Autonomy – degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence,
and discretion to the individual in scheduling work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out.
• Feedback – degree to which carrying out the activities required by the job results
in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of
his or her performance.
If these core dimensions are present in a job, they are expected to create three critical
psychological states in job incumbents. The key psychological states that are necessary for
motivation and satisfaction are:
1. Experienced meaningfulness – degree to which the job incumbent experiences work
as important, valuable and worthwhile.
2. Experienced responsibility – extent to which the job incumbent feels personally
responsible and accountable for the results of the work performed.
3. Knowledge of results – understanding that a job incumbent receives about how
effectively he or she is performing the job.
The more these three states are experienced, the more internal work motivation the job
incumbent will feel. To the extent that these three states are important to the job incumbent, he or
she will then be motivated to perform well and will be satisfied with the job.
The three job dimensions – skill variety, task identity, and task significance – all contribute to a
sense of meaningfulness. Autonomy is directly related to feelings of responsibility. Feedback is
related to knowledge of results. For job incumbents to be internally motivated, they must have a
sense of the quality of their performance. This sense comes from feedback.

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3.2.3 Job Design: The Next Challenge
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, European and Asian competitors of American firms were
embracing the quality management movement, having turned away from basics of scientific
management. Self-directed teams became important ingredients in the success of manufacturers
worldwide. Many American corporations are also implementing self-directed work teams.
Coopers & Lybrand’s Competency Alignment Process (CAP) takes a holistic view of
reengineering work processes and the effects on how employees use their skills. CAP involves
the systematic study, analysis, and assessment of jobs and the skills needed to perform them in
the reengineered organisation. To accomplish this goal, CAP determines current skill levels of
employees in order to identify skill gaps. When a skill deficiency exists for the reengineered
organisation, it can then be eliminated through a variety of programmes including training,
redeployment, and outsourcing. Without these or similar efforts, reengineering will probably not
succeed. Thus, job analysts and other HR professionals are a crucial link in the reengineering
process upon which so many corporations are staking their competitive future.

4 Job Descriptions and Job Specifications

How would a manager describe the openings when he advertises to hire employees? At
an interview to select the best person from those who apply, what guidelines would an
interviewer use? The answer: with job descriptions and job specifications.
The job description is one of the primary outputs provided by a systematic JA. From the
data gathered in JA, organisations (particularly larger ones) prepare records of what jobs
are being performed in the organisation (job descriptions) and the qualifications
necessary to perform them (job specifications). These are used when replacement
becomes necessary.
Simply stated, a job description is a written description of what the job entails. It is not
necessary to overemphasise how important thorough, accurate, and current job
descriptions are to an organisation. Many changes occurring in recent years have
increased the need for such job descriptions. These changes include:
1. the vast number of organisational restructurings that have occurred (e.g.,
downsizing)
2. the need to implement new and creative ways to motivate and reward employees
3. the accelerated rate at which technology is changing work environments
4. new, more stringent regulation of employment practices through legislation.
There is no standard format for a job description but almost all well-written, useful
descriptions will include information on (Ghorpade, 1988):
• Job Title – title of the job and other identifying information such as its wage and
benefits classification.

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 • Summary – brief one or two sentence statements describing the purpose of the job
and what outputs are expected from job incumbents.
• Equipment – clear statement of the tools, equipment and information required for
effectively performing the job.
• Environment – descriptions of the working conditions of the job, the location of
the job, and other relevant characteristics of the immediate work environment
such as hazards and noise levels.
• Activities – includes a description of the job duties, responsibilities, and
behaviours performed on the job. Also describes the social interactions associated
with the work (for example, size of work group, amount of dependency in the
work).
The job specification evolves from the job description. It addresses the question ‘What
personal traits and experience are needed to perform the job effectively?’ The job
specification is especially useful in offering guidance for recruitment and selection.
The determination of skills, knowledge or abilities required for performing a particular
job must be systematic. R. J. Harvey (1993) offers the following guidelines for arriving at
the characteristics that should be included in a job specification:
1. All job tasks must be identified and rated in terms of importance (by means of
job analysis techniques)
2. A panel of experts, incumbents or supervisors should specify the necessary
skills for performing each of the job tasks identified
3. The importance of each skill must be rated
4. Any other characteristics necessary for performing the job, such as physical
requirements and professional certification, should be identified
5. Each skill that has been identified needs to be specifically linked to each job
task.
Only traits and skills that are actually required to perform the job should be stated in the
job specification. Job specifications need to differentiate clearly between essential and
nonessential skills. Essential skills are those for which alternative ways of accomplishing
the job are not possible. Changing the structure or work methods of the job can
accommodate nonessential skills.

Activity
Prepare a job description for your job position using the criteria stated above.

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5 Summary
Job analysis plays a major role in HRM activities and programmes. The job is the major
building block of an organisation. Therefore, it is essential that each characteristic of each
job in an organisation is clearly understood. One of the definitions of job analysis is ‘a
purposeful, systematic process for collecting information on the important work-
related aspects of a job.’ Part of the problem in defining JA stems from a difficulty we
have with the term job.
A variety of information is collected to undertake a proper JA. This information can be in
the form of qualitative, verbal, narrative descriptions or quantitative measurements of
each item.
JA can use one or many of seven methods. Some are quick but may produce less reliable
data than other methods. Others are more accurate but more costly.
JA is a fundamental starting point for HR management. JA information can be used in
each phase of the human resource management cycle, viz., job design, job classification
and evaluation, recruitment, selection, training, performance appraisal and performance
management.
JA provides a range of information in regard to jobs in organisations. The information derived
includes the following: job description, job specification, job classification and job evaluation,
job design, and performance appraisal. If used properly, job analysis ensures that the appraisal
instrument assesses what is actually being done on the job.
As much as there are benefits towards management, especially towards line management, there
are also benefits to individuals from job analysis.
JA involves collecting data about the job; it is a systematic process for collecting, analysing, and
interpreting job-related information. Conducting JA is not for amateurs. Training is required.
There are numerous ways in which data could be collected. However, HR specialists adopt the
method depending on the circumstances. In general, JA methods require the following data
collection techniques: background research, performance of the job, site observations, individual
interviews, group interviews, and job analysis questionnaires.
Job analysts commonly combine methods of data collection to obtain a true and full picture of
the job under study. Most approaches to job analysis mix and match various job data sources and
data collection techniques. Since a variety of systems have evolved, an approach most commonly
encountered – the distinction between work-oriented and worker-oriented methods, is used.
Work-oriented approaches include two methods: Functional Job Analysis and Critical Incidents
Technique. Worker-oriented approaches consist of three methods: Position Analysis
Questionnaire, Job Element Method, and Threshold Traits Analysis.
A multi-method job analysis approach to JA uses a combination of four general job analysis
techniques: observation, interviews, questionnaires and job incumbent diaries.

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Job design involves structuring job elements, duties, and tasks to achieve optimal performance
and satisfaction. Job design was a concern of Fredrick Taylor, the famous industrial engineer and
father of what is called scientific management. Job enrichment involves designing jobs so that
employees’ needs for growth, recognition, and responsibility are satisfied.
The job description is one of the primary outputs provided by a systematic JA. From the
data gathered in JA, organisations (particularly larger ones) prepare records of what jobs
are being performed in the organisation (job descriptions) and the qualifications
necessary to perform them (job specifications).

6 References and Further Reading

Fine, S. A. & Getkate, M. 1995. Benchmark tasks for functional job analysis. Mahwah,
NJ : Erlbaum.
Gael, S. 1988. (Ed.) The job analysis handbook for business, industry, and government.
vol. 1. New York: Wiley.
Gatewood, R.D. & Feild, H.S. 1994. Human resource selection. 2nd ed. Hindsdale, IL:
Dryden.
Ghorpade, J. 1988. Job analysis: a handbook for the human resource director.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Ghorpade, J. & Atchison, T. J. 1980. The concept of job analysis: A review and some
suggestions, Public Personnel Management 9.
Glueck, W. F. 1978. Personnel: a diagnostic approach. Dallas, TX: Business
Publications Inc.
Hackman, J. R. & Oldham, G.R. August 1976. Motivation through the design of work.
Test of a theory. Organisational Behavior and Human Performance.
Harvey, R. J. 1993. Development of the Common-Metric Questionnaire.Research
Monograph. Blacksburg, Virginia: Personnel Systems and Technologies Corporation and
Virginia Polytechnic Institute State University.
Herzberg F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. 1959. The motivation to work. New York:
Wiley.
Ivancevich, J.M. 1998. Human resource management 7th ed. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill.
Schneider, B., & Konz, A.M. Spring 1989. Strategic job analysis. Human Resource
Management.

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