Experiment 1: Introduction to Calculus through
OCTAVE - Symbolic Computations
Objective
To introduce students to GNU Octave basics and apply symbolic computations for limits, derivatives,
integrals, and solving equations—tools essential for calculus and differential equations.
Part A: Introduction to GNU Octave Programming
Installation Instructions
1. Install GNU Octave: Download from https://www.gnu.org/software/octave/. Then click
on the ‘Download’ tab and choose suitable version based on your system’s configuration. The
interface is as follows:
Figure 1.1: Octave Interface
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VIT, Vellore BAMAT101: Calculus Lab Manual
Figure 1.2: Octave Interface
2. Install Symbolic Package: For symbolic computations, you need to install the Symbolic package.
Type the following line in the Command Window (only once):
pkg install -forge symbolic
3. Load Package (do this at the start of each session):
pkg load symbolic
GNU Octave as a Computational Tool
GNU Octave is a high-level programming language primarily intended for numerical computations. It
is largely compatible with MATLAB and provides a powerful environment for mathematical modeling,
numerical computations, symbolic algebra, data analysis, and visualization. Octave code can be written
as scripts or functions, executed in the Command Window or saved as .m files.
Essential Commands
Command Description
clc Clears the command window
clear Clears all variables from memory
whos Displays workspace variables and memory info
help <command> Shows help for a specific command
doc <command> Opens documentation for a command
pkg list Lists installed packages
pkg load symbolic Loads the symbolic package
Table 1.1: Basic GNU Octave Environment Commands
Note: The contents of the workspace persist between the executions of separate commands. Therefore,
it is possible for the results of one problem to have an effect on the next one. To avoid this possibility,
it is a good idea to issue a clear command at the start of each new independent calculation.
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Arithmetic and Relational Operations
• Addition: +, Subtraction: -, Multiplication: *, Division: /, Power: ^
• Relational: ==, >, <, >=, <=, != (Note: Octave uses != instead of ~=)
Precedence Mathematical operations
First The contents of all parentheses are evaluated first, starting from
the innermost parentheses and working outward.
Second All exponentials are evaluated, working from left to right
Third All multiplications and divisions are evaluated, working from left
to right
Fourth All additions and subtractions are evaluated, starting from left to
right
Table 1.2: Hierarchy of arithmetic operations
Variables and Arrays
a = 5; % Scalar
v = [1 2 3]; % Row vector
v2 = [1; 2; 3]; % Column vector
m = [1 2; 3 4]; % 2x2 Matrix
z = zeros(3); % 3x3 Zero matrix
i = eye(4); % 4x4 Identity matrix
Accessing and Modifying Elements
A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6];
A(1,2) % Element at 1st row, 2nd column
A(:,1) % All rows, 1st column
A(2,:) = [7 8 9]; % Modify 2nd row
Controlling the Appearance of Floating Point Numbers
Octave by default displays numbers in a short format. The command format controls how the results
of computations are displayed. Fixed point format with 5 significant figures (default).
format short
x = -163.6667
Output: x = -163.67
If we want to see more digits, we use the command format long (fixed point format with 16 significant
figures):
format long
x = -163.66666666666666666666667
Output: x = -163.6666666666667
To return to the standard format, enter format short, or simply format.
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Elementary Functions
cos(x) Cosine abs(x) Absolute value
sin(x) Sine sign(x) Signum function
tan(x) Tangent max(x) Maximum value
acos(x) Arc cosine min(x) Minimum value
asin(x) Arc sine ceil(x) Round towards +∞
atan(x) Arc tangent floor(x) Round towards −∞
exp(x) Exponential round(x) Round to nearest integer
sqrt(x) Square root rem(x) Remainder after division
log(x) Natural logarithm angle(x) Phase angle
log10(x) Common logarithm conj(x) Complex conjugate
Table 1.3: Elementary functions
Predefined Constants
pi The π number, π = 3.14159
√ ...
i, j The imaginary unit i, −1
Inf The infinity, ∞
NaN Not a number
Table 1.4: Predefined constant values
Displaying Output: disp() and fprintf()
• disp(x): Displays the value of x without printing the variable name.
x = 5;
disp(x)
Output:
5
• fprintf() : Provides formatted output. Allows control over string and number display.
x = 5;
fprintf('The value of x is %d\n', x)
Output:
The value of x is 5
Control Structures
For Loop
for i = 1:5 % increment by 1 (default)
disp(i^2)
end
Output: 1 4 9 16 25
for i = 1:2:5 % increment by 2
disp(i^2)
end
Output: 1 9 25
Try the following code and observe the output:
for i = 5:-1:1 % decrement by 1
disp(i^2)
end
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VIT, Vellore BAMAT101: Calculus Lab Manual
While Loop
i = 1;
while i <= 5
disp(i^2)
i = i + 1;
end
Output: 1 4 9 16 25
If-Else
x = 10;
if x > 0
disp('Positive')
elseif x == 0
disp('Zero')
else
disp('Negative')
end
Output: Positive
Creating Functions
Open a new script to create your own function and save the file as the name of the function with .m
extension.
function y = squareNum(x)
y = x^2;
end
Save the file as squareNum.m
Part B: Symbolic Computations in GNU Octave
Important: Before starting symbolic computations, make sure to load the symbolic package:
pkg load symbolic
Declaring Symbolic Variables
syms x y
% Alternative method:
% x = sym('x');
% y = sym('y');
Symbolic Expressions
f = x^2 + 3*x + 2;
subs(f, x, 2) % Substitutes x = 2
Output: 12
Differentiation
Using Definition (First Principles)
The derivative is defined as:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
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pkg load symbolic
syms x h
f = x^2;
df = limit((subs(f, x, x+h) - f)/h, h, 0)
Output: df = 2*x
Using Inbuilt diff Function
pkg load symbolic
syms x
diff(x^3 + 2*x, x)
Output: 3*xˆ2 + 2
Integration
pkg load symbolic
syms x
int(x^2) % Indefinite
int(x^2, x, 0, 1) % Definite
Output:
x^3/3
1/3
Limits
pkg load symbolic
syms x
limit(tan(x)/x, x, 0)
Output: 1
Equation Solving
pkg load symbolic
syms x
solve(x^2 - 4 == 0, x)
Output:
ans =
-2
2
Partial Derivatives
pkg load symbolic
syms x y
f = x^2*y + y^2;
diff(f, x)
diff(f, y)
Output:
ans = 2*x*y
ans = x^2 + 2*y
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Key Differences Between MATLAB and Octave
1. Symbolic Package: In Octave, you must explicitly install and load the symbolic package
2. Not Equal Operator: Octave uses != instead of MATLAB’s ~
=
3. Package Management: Octave uses pkg commands for package management
4. Some Functions: Some advanced functions may have different names or may not be available
Exercises
1. Write an Octave script that computes squares of numbers from 1 to 10 using a loop.
2. Create a 3x3 identity matrix and add it to a 3x3 zero matrix.
sin(x)
3. Compute lim using symbolic limit.
x→0 x
4. Find the first derivative of f (x) = sin(x2 ).
Z 1
5. Compute the definite integral x3 dx.
0
∂ 2 ∂ 2
6. Find (x + xy) and (x + xy).
∂x ∂y
Sample Solutions
Exercise 1: Squares using loop
for i = 1:10
fprintf('Square of %d is %d\n', i, i^2)
end
Exercise 2: Matrix operations
I = eye(3); % 3x3 identity matrix
Z = zeros(3); % 3x3 zero matrix
result = I + Z; % Add them together
disp(result)
Exercise 3: Symbolic limit
pkg load symbolic
syms x
result = limit(sin(x)/x, x, 0)
Exercise 4: Derivative of composite function
pkg load symbolic
syms x
f = sin(x^2);
df = diff(f, x)
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Exercise 5: Definite integral
pkg load symbolic
syms x
result = int(x^3, x, 0, 1)
Exercise 6: Partial derivatives
pkg load symbolic
syms x y
f = x^2 + x*y;
df_dx = diff(f, x)
df_dy = diff(f, y)
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