Module- 1.

Introduction to Computer: [8 L]
Basic Building blocks, Algorithms, Flowcharts, Pseudo codes, System and Application Software-
concepts & terminologies, Concepts of Machine Language, Assembly Language and High level
languages, Fundamentals of World Wide Web and Internet

Basic Building blocks,

A computer system is basically a machine that simplifies complicated tasks. It should maximize
performance and reduce costs as well as power consumption.


Central Processing Unit (CPU):

 The CPU is the primary component responsible for executing instructions in a computer
system.

 It consists of several subunits, including the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU), and
Registers.

 The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on data.

 The CU manages the execution of instructions by fetching them from memory, decoding them,
and controlling the flow of data between other CPU components.

 the ALU and control unit (collectively called a central processing unit or CPU) have typically
been located on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.

 Registers are small, high-speed memory units used to store data temporarily during
processing.
  The control system ties the ALU, I/O systems etc all together. Its job is to read instructions and
data from memory or the I/O devices, decode the instructions, providing the ALU with the
correct inputs according to the instructions, "tell" the ALU what operation to perform on those
inputs, and send the results back to the memory or to the I/O devices. One key component of
the control system is a counter that keeps track of what the address of the current instruction
is; typically, this is incremented each time an instruction is executed, unless the instruction
itself indicates that the next instruction should be at some other location (allowing the
computer to repeatedly execute the same instructions).

 Memory:

 Memory stores data and instructions for the CPU to access.

 Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile memory used for temporary storage. It holds data
and program instructions that are actively being used by the CPU.

 Read-Only Memory (ROM) is non-volatile memory used for permanent storage. It typically
stores firmware or BIOS instructions that are essential for booting up the computer.

 Cache memory, including L1, L2, and L3 caches, is faster than main memory (RAM) and is used
to temporarily store frequently accessed data and instructions, reducing the time needed to
access them.

 Input/Output (I/O) Devices:

 I/O devices facilitate communication between the computer and the external world.

 Examples include keyboards, mice, monitors, printers, scanners, network adapters, and
storage devices like hard drives and USB flash drives.

 Storage Devices:

 Storage devices store data persistently.

 Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) use spinning disks and magnetic storage to store data.

 Solid-State Drives (SSDs) use flash memory and have no moving parts, offering faster access
times and better reliability compared to HDDs.

 Optical drives, such as CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs, use laser technology to read and write data
on optical discs.

 USB flash drives provide portable, removable storage using flash memory technology.

 Bus:

 The bus is a communication system that enables data transfer between various components
within the computer.

 It consists of several types of buses, including the address bus, data bus, and control bus.

 The address bus carries memory addresses used to identify specific locations in memory.

 The data bus carries data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

 The control bus carries control signals to coordinate the operation of different components.

 Registers:

 Registers are small, high-speed storage locations located within the CPU.
  They hold data temporarily during processing and are used to store operands, intermediate
results, and memory addresses.

 Common types of registers include the program counter (PC), instruction register (IR), and
general-purpose registers (e.g., accumulator, index registers).

 Clock:

 The clock generates timing signals that synchronize the operations of various components
within the computer.

 It determines the rate at which instructions are executed and the speed at which data is
transferred between components.

 Clock speed is measured in Hertz (Hz) and indicates the number of clock cycles per second.

 on each clock cycle, the computer fetches instructions and data from its memory. The
instructions are executed, the results are stored, and the next instruction is fetched. This
procedure repeats until a halt instruction is encountered.

System and Application Software- concepts & terminologies,

Software:
The software can be best defined as a set of instructions, technically referred to as programs, that
perform operations and specific tasks based on the commands of the user. Every single task that a
user intends to perform is regulated by software. Made of binary language (ones and zeroes), there is
a variety of software for different tasks. With that said, here’s everything about software that you
should know.

1. System Software:

 Operating Systems (OS): Examples include Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, and
Unix. They manage hardware resources, provide a user interface, and support the
execution of applications.

 Device Drivers: These are small programs that enable the operating system to
communicate with hardware devices such as printers, graphics cards, and network
adapters.

 Utilities: These tools perform specific tasks such as disk defragmentation, antivirus
scanning, backup and recovery, system monitoring, and system optimization.

2. Application Software:

 Productivity Software: Examples include Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint),

Google Workspace (Docs, Sheets, Slides), and Apple iWork. These applications are
used for creating documents, spreadsheets, presentations, and managing
information.
  Graphics Software: Examples include Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW, and GIMP.
These tools are used for creating and editing digital images, illustrations, and graphical
designs.

 Multimedia Software: Examples include Adobe Premiere Pro, Apple Final Cut Pro, and
Audacity. These applications are used for editing and creating multimedia content
such as videos, audio tracks, and podcasts.

 Educational Software: Examples include Khan Academy, Duolingo, and Rosetta Stone.
These programs are designed to facilitate learning and education through interactive
tutorials, simulations, and exercises.

 Entertainment Software: Examples include video games like , Minecraft, and Candy
Crush Saga. These applications provide entertainment and leisure activities for users.

 Business Software: Examples include QuickBooks, Salesforce, and SAP. These

applications are used for managing various aspects of business operations such as
accounting, customer relationship management (CRM), and enterprise resource
planning (ERP).

 Communication Software: Examples include Skype, Slack, and Microsoft Teams.

These tools facilitate communication between users through text, voice, or video
messaging.

 Web Browsers: Examples include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft
Edge. These applications allow users to access and interact with content on the World
Wide Web.

 Database Software: Examples include MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, and Oracle
Database. These systems are used for storing, organizing, and retrieving data
efficiently.

 Programming Software: Examples include Visual Studio, Sublime Text, and IntelliJ
IDEA. These tools provide developers with an environment for writing, testing, and
debugging code.

3. Programming Software - Programs and software are created by coders using different
software tools, known as programming software. Some such programs used for software
development by coders are as given below

 Compilers – The conversion of codes written by humans into lower-level machine

code is performed by compilers. These machine codes can be interpreted directly by
computer hardware. While compilers serve a very basic purpose, they are the basis
for creating even the most complicated and sophisticated software.
 Debuggers – Debuggers play an essential role in ensuring your software or application
performs well by testing and debugging the computer code.
 Linkers – Linkers are responsible for combining various individual files from a compiler
into a single executable file. The file converted, as a result, runs on its own without
requiring a programming environment.
 Malware – Malware is software developed to attack computers and their software in
a harmful way to cause them to misbehave or seize to work. This includes viruses,
ransomware, trojans, and worms. Since there are a variety of malware that may be
mistakenly downloaded, it is crucial to have antimalware software on your computer
to keep it safe from their attacks.
There are different ways in which software can be distributed based on various factors. With that said,
here are some common distribution mechanisms for software-

2. Open-Source

 Examples include the Linux kernel, Apache web server, Mozilla Firefox browser, and
WordPress content management system. These projects are developed
collaboratively by a community of developers, and the source code is freely available
for study, modification, and distribution.

 Open-source licenses like the GNU General Public License (GPL) or the MIT License
govern the use and distribution of open-source software, ensuring that it remains
open and accessible to the public.

3. Freeware

Freeware type of software is available to be downloaded from the internet and is completely free of
cost. Freeware is commonly adware, which means it comes with embedded advertising to generate
revenue, which compensates for the software being free of cost. : Examples include CCleaner, 7-Zip,
and Adobe Acrobat Reader.

4. Shareware

Shareware is a variation of software, which is available for download for a limited period of time on a
trial basis. It is aimed at offering a realistic experience to users so that they make the decision to buy
the full version of the software for an unlimited amount of time, based on their experience with the
shareware.: Examples include WinRAR, WinZip, and many early PC games.

5. Closed Source Software:

• Examples include Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop, and proprietary enterprise software
like Oracle Database. The source code of closed-source software is not available to the public, and its
distribution and modification are controlled by the copyright holder.

Users typically obtain closed-source software through a one-time purchase, subscription, or licensing
agreement.

Algorithms, Flowcharts, Pseudo codes

Definition:
An algorithm is a set of commands that must be followed for a computer to perform calculations or
other problem-solving operations. According to its formal definition, an algorithm is a finite set of
instructions carried out in a specific order to perform a particular task. It is not the entire program or
code; it is simple logic to a problem represented as an informal description in the form of a flowchart
or pseudocode.

Need of an algorithm:
 Optimizes Problem-solving: An algorithm helps us grasp the fundamental concept of
the problem solving as it written in simple English and follows a step-by-step approach to
solve a problem statement.
  Measure of Performance: Algorithms are the best way to measure the performance of the
program in all cases, time complexity, space complexity (best cases, worst cases, average
cases).

 Resource Allocation: Algorithms are used to determine the best possible way to solve a
problem statement based on the amount of resources used in terms of storage and processing
power. So writing an algorithm can help us determine the resources required to run the
algorithm and accordingly resource allocation can be done.

An algorithm can be expressed in three different ways. They are:

1. Natural Language: An algorithm can be expressed in a natural language like English. But it is
usually hard to understand and is not the best way to express an algorithm.

2. Flow Charts: Flow charts are another way of expressing an algorithm where we make use
of diagrams to represent the algorithm.

3. Pseudo-Code: It is the best way to express an algorithm. In pseudo-code, we explain the

algorithm in steps. It doesn’t have any syntax like any other programming language.
Therefore, it can’t be interpreted or compiled. The previously mentioned example of Making
Tea is a Pseudocode way to express an algorithm.

Flowchart Definition:
A flowchart is a visual representation of a process or algorithm, using standardized symbols and arrows
to depict the sequence of steps, decision points, and flow of control. It provides a clear and concise
overview of the logical structure and flow of a procedure. In other words, A flow chart is a graphical or
symbolic representation of a process. Each step in the process is represented by a different symbol and
contains a short description of the process step. The flow chart symbols are linked together with arrows
showing the process flow direction.

Symbols Used In A Flowchart

1. Terminal or Start/End Symbol: Represents the start or end of a process. (Oval)
2. Process Symbol: Represents a processing step or action. (Rectangle)
3. Decision Symbol: Represents a decision point or conditional statement. (Diamond)
4. Input / Output Symbol: Represents input or output operations. (Parallelogram or Trapezoid)
5. Flow Arrow: Represents the flow of control or direction of the process.
6. Connector Symbol: Connects different parts of the flowchart.
7. Loop Symbol: Represents a loop or repetitive process.
8. Predefined Process Symbol: Represents a predefined process or sub-routine.
9. Annotation Symbol: Provides additional information or comments.
10. Off-page Connector Symbol: Connects to another part of the flowchart on a different page.

Characteristics of Flowcharts:

1. Visual Representation:

 Flowcharts use visual symbols and shapes to represent different elements of a

process, making them easy to understand and interpret.

2. Standardized Symbols:
  Flowcharts employ a set of standardized symbols to represent various actions,
decisions, inputs, outputs, and flow control constructs. These symbols ensure
consistency and clarity across different flowchart diagrams.

3. Sequential Flow:

 Flowcharts depict the sequential flow of steps or actions in a process, illustrating the
order in which tasks are performed or decisions are made.

4. Decision Points:

 Flowcharts include decision points or conditional statements, represented by

diamond-shaped symbols, where the flow of control branches based on specific
conditions or criteria.

5. Arrows for Flow Direction:

 Arrows connecting symbols indicate the direction of flow, showing the progression
from one step to the next in the process.

6. Modularity:

 Flowcharts can be modular, with sub-processes or modules represented as separate

flowchart diagrams. This modularity enhances readability, understanding, and ease of
maintenance.

7. Flexibility:

 Flowcharts are flexible and can be adapted to represent a wide range of processes or
algorithms across different domains and industries.

8. Ease of Documentation:

 Flowcharts serve as effective documentation tools, enabling stakeholders to visualize

and understand complex processes, workflows, or algorithms.

9. Communication Tool:

 Flowcharts facilitate communication and collaboration among team members,

stakeholders, and decision-makers by providing a common visual language for
discussing processes and procedures.

10. Analysis and Optimization:

 Flowcharts can be analyzed to identify inefficiencies, bottlenecks, or areas for

optimization within a process. They help in streamlining workflows and improving
productivity.

11. Tool for Problem Solving:

 Flowcharts are valuable tools for problem-solving, enabling individuals to

systematically analyze problems, explore alternative solutions, and design effective
processes or algorithms.

Pseudocode
Pseudocode is defined as a method of describing a process or writing programming code
and algorithms using a natural language such as English. It is not the code itself, but rather a
description of what the code should do. In other words, it is used as a detailed yet understandable
step-by-step plan or blueprint from which a program can be written. It is like a rough draft of a
program or an algorithm before it is implemented in a programming language. It can also be referred
to as 'false code' or 'representation of code'. The purpose of using pseudocode is to provide a clear
and concise description of the steps that will be taken in a process or algorithm without the need for
specific syntax or code. Pseudocode is not compiled or executed on computers, it is only meant to be
read and understood by humans. Pseudocode is often used as a tool to create, design, or plan
algorithms and prototypes.

Concepts of Machine Language, Assembly Language and High level languages,

Computer languages can be broadly categorized into several types based on their level of abstraction
and specific use cases. Here’s a brief overview of the main types:

1. Machine Language:

 The lowest level of programming language, consisting of binary code (0s and 1s) that
a computer's CPU can directly execute.

 Example: Binary instructions specific to a CPU's architecture.

2. Assembly Language:

 A low-level language that uses symbolic code and is closely related to machine
language.

 Requires an assembler to convert assembly code into machine code.

 Example: x86 assembly language.

3. High-Level Languages:

 More abstract and user-friendly, allowing programmers to write code using human-
readable syntax.

 Requires a compiler or interpreter to translate high-level code into machine code.

 Examples: Python, Java, C++, and JavaScript.

Compiler Phases:

The compilation process contains the sequence of various phases. Each phase takes source program
in one representation and produces output in another representation. Each phase takes input from
its previous stage.

There are the various phases of compiler:

Fig: phases of compiler

Compiler VS Interpreter with their advantages and dis advantages

 A compiler translates code written in a high-level programming language into a lower-level

language like assembly language, object code and machine code (binary 1 and 0 bits). It
converts the code ahead of time before the program runs.

 An interpreter translates the code line-by-line when the program is running. You’ve likely used
interpreters unknowingly at some point in your work career.

 A compiler takes in the entire program and requires a lot of time to analyze the source code.
Whereas the interpreter takes a single line of code and very little time to analyze it.
 Compiled code runs faster, while interpreted code runs slower.
 A compiler displays all errors after compilation. If your code has mistakes, it will not compile.
But the interpreter displays errors of each line one by one.
 Interpretation does not replace compilation completely.
 Compilers can contain interpreters for optimization reasons like faster performance and
smaller memory footprint.

Time and Space Complexity

An algorithm can be defined as efficient based on the time and space it consumes while we execute
the program. The more time and space it take, the less efficient it is.

1. Space Complexity:

The space complexity of an algorithm is defined as the amount of memory required to store
the variables, inputs, and output of the algorithm. The smaller the space, the better the algorithm.

2. Time Complexity:

The time complexity of an algorithm is defined as the amount of time taken to execute the algorithm
and produce the output. The less time, the better the algorithm.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

int arr[] = {3, 7, 2, 9, 1, 5};

int size = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);

// Initialize max_val and min_val to the first element of the array

int max_val = arr[0];

int min_val = arr[0];

// Iterate through the array to find max and min

for (int i = 1; i < size; i++) {

if (arr[i] > max_val) {

max_val = arr[i];

if (arr[i] < min_val) {

min_val = arr[i];

// Output the maximum and minimum values

printf("Maximum value: %d\n", max_val);

printf("Minimum value: %d\n", min_val);

return 0;

Space Complexity Analysis:

 Input Space: The space required to store the input array. Let's assume the input array is of
size n.

 Space: O(n)

 Auxiliary Space: The space required by the algorithm for its internal operations.
  max_val and min_val: Two variables are used to store the maximum and minimum
values.

 Space: O(1) each

 Other variables (loop counter, temporary variables):

 Space: O(1)

 Total Space Complexity:

 O(n) (for input space) + O(1) + O(1) + O(1) = O(n)

Time Complexity Analysis:

 Initialization:

 Constant time operations to initialize max_val and min_val. Time: O(1)

 Loop:

 The loop iterates through the array once. For an array of size n, the loop runs n-1
times. Time: O(n)

 Comparison in Loop:

 Each comparison operation in the loop is constant time. Time: O(1) each.

 Output:

 Constant time operations to print the maximum and minimum values. Time: O(1)

Total Time Complexity:

 O(1) (Initialization) + O(n) (Loop) + O(1) (Output) = O(n)

Fundamentals of World Wide Web and Internet

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and other devices that enables the
exchange of data and communication through various protocols.

Internet is called a network as it creates a network by connecting computers and servers across the
world using routers, switches and telephone lines, and other communication devices and channels.
So, it can be considered a global network of physical cables such as copper telephone wires, fiber optic
cables, tv cables, etc. Furthermore, even wireless connections like 3G, 4G, or Wi-Fi make use of these
cables to access the Internet.

Internet is different from the World Wide Web as the World Wide Web is a network of computers and
servers created by connecting them through the internet. So, the internet is the backbone of the web
as it provides the technical infrastructure to establish the WWW and acts as a medium to transmit
information from one computer to another computer. It uses web browsers to display the information
on the client, which it fetches from web servers.

The sender-receiver concept in the context of the Internet refers to the fundamental mechanism by
which data is transmitted from one device (the sender) to another device (the receiver).
  The transmission medium refers to the physical pathway through which data travels from
the sender to the receiver in a network. Various types of transmission media are used in
Internet communication, each with its own characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages.
They can be broadly categorized into wired and wireless media.

Wired Transmission Media:

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

 Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.

 Used for telephone networks and Ethernet networks.

2. Coaxial Cable:

 Contains a central conductor, insulating layer, metallic shield, and outer insulating
layer.

 Used for cable television, Internet connections, and local area networks.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

 Uses light to transmit data through glass or plastic fibers.

 Types: Single-mode fiber (for long-distance communication) and multi-mode fiber

(for shorter distances).

Wireless Transmission Media:

1. Radio Waves:

 Used for wireless networking (Wi-Fi), Bluetooth, and mobile communications

(cellular networks).

2. Microwaves:

 Used for point-to-point communication links, satellite communication, and some

types of cellular networks.

3. Infrared:

 Used for short-range communication, such as remote controls and some wireless
peripherals.

4. Satellite:

 Uses satellites orbiting the Earth to relay data between ground stations.

 Internet vs intranet vs extranet:

An intranet is a smaller, private network restricted to an organization, while the Internet is a much
larger, global network that connects numerous smaller networks, including intranets, enabling
communication and data exchange on a worldwide scale. An extranet is like a controlled extension
of an organization's network that allows outside partners or clients to access certain resources or
services securely over the Internet.

 Topologies
 Network topologies refer to the physical or logical layout of interconnected devices in a
computer network.

1. Bus Topology:
 All devices are connected to a single cable, known as a backbone.
 Data travels in both directions along the cable.
 Simple and inexpensive, but prone to cable failures and collisions.

2. Star Topology:
 All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
 Data travels through the hub or switch to reach other devices.
 Easy to install, scalable, and provides centralized management.
 If the hub or switch fails, the entire network may go down.

3. Ring Topology:
 Each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a closed loop.
 Data travels in one direction around the ring.
 Relatively fault-tolerant, as data can travel in both directions in the event of a cable
break.
 However, network performance can degrade if too many devices are added to the
ring.

4. Mesh Topology:
 Each device is connected to every other device in the network.
 Offers high redundancy and fault tolerance.
  Complex and expensive to implement due to the large number of connections
required.
 Used in critical applications where reliability is paramount.

5. Hybrid Topology:
 Combines two or more basic topologies (e.g., star-bus, star-ring).
 Provides flexibility to meet specific network requirements.
 Offers a balance between reliability, scalability, and cost.

6. Tree Topology:
 Hierarchical topology with multiple levels of interconnected devices.
 Lower-level devices are connected to higher-level devices, forming a tree-like
structure.
 Provides scalability and centralized management, similar to a star topology.

 Protocols:

Protocols are a set of rules and conventions that govern how data is formatted,
transmitted, received, and processed in a computer network.
1. Key Protocols:
 Internet Protocol (IP): The primary protocol for routing and addressing packets of
data across the Internet.
  Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Provides reliable, connection-oriented
communication between devices by establishing and maintaining a connection.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Provides unreliable, connectionless communication
suitable for applications where speed is prioritized over reliability.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Facilitates the transfer of hypertext documents
(web pages) on the World Wide Web.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Used for transferring files between a client and a server
on a network.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used for sending email messages between
servers.
 Domain Name System (DNS): Translates domain names into IP addresses, enabling
users to access websites using human-readable names.

 Some terminologies regarding the Internet:

1. URL (Uniform Resource Locator):

A URL is a web address that specifies the location of a resource on the Internet. It typically includes
the protocol (e.g., HTTP, HTTPS), domain name, and path to the resource.

2. IP Address (Internet Protocol Address):

An IP address is a unique numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network
using the Internet Protocol (IP). IPv4 and IPv6 are the two main versions of IP addresses.

3. DNS (Domain Name System):

DNS is a hierarchical decentralized naming system that translates human-readable domain names
(e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses. It helps users access websites using domain names
instead of numerical IP addresses.

4. ISP (Internet Service Provider):

An ISP is a company that provides users with access to the Internet. ISPs connect users to the
Internet through various technologies such as dial-up, DSL, cable, fiber-optic, or wireless
connections.

5. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and HTTPS (HTTP Secure)**:

HTTP and HTTPS are protocols used for transmitting hypertext documents (web pages) on the World
Wide Web. HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP that encrypts data transmission, ensuring privacy and
security.

6. Router:

A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. It acts as a
junction point between different networks and determines the best path for data to travel.

7. Firewall:

A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predetermined security rules. It helps protect networks from unauthorized access
and malicious activities.
 8. Modem:

A modem is a device that converts digital data from a computer into analog signals for transmission
over communication lines (e.g., telephone lines, cable lines). It also converts incoming analog signals
back into digital data.

9. Bandwidth:

Bandwidth refers to the maximum data transfer rate of a network connection, typically measured in
bits per second (bps) or megabits per second (Mbps). Higher bandwidth allows for faster data
transmission.

10. WWW (World Wide Web):

 The World Wide Web is an information system on the Internet that allows users to
access and interact with multimedia content (web pages) using web browsers. It was
developed by Tim Berners-Lee in the late 1980s.
11. Web Browser:
 A web browser is a software application used to access, view, and interact with web
pages on the World Wide Web. Popular web browsers include Google Chrome,
Mozilla Firefox, Apple Safari, Microsoft Edge, and Opera.

12. Search Engine:

 A search engine is a web-based tool that allows users to search for information on
the Internet by entering keywords or phrases. Examples include Google, Bing,
Yahoo, and DuckDuckGo.

13. Hyperlink:
A hyperlink, or simply link, is a clickable element on a web page that redirects users to
another web page, document, or resource when clicked. It is typically styled differently from
regular text and often underlined or colored.

14. Website:
A collection of related web pages hosted on a web server and accessible over the Internet.
Websites can serve various purposes, such as providing information, selling products or
services, or facilitating communication.

15. Homepage:
The main or initial web page of a website, serving as the entry point for visitors. It typically
provides an overview of the website's content and navigation options.

16. Web Page:

A single document or file accessible on the World Wide Web. Web pages are typically
written in HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) and may contain text, images, multimedia
elements, and hyperlinks.