BCV654 B Module-4

MODULE-4

Data Quality and Standards

Data quality - Basic aspects - completeness, logical consistency, positional accuracy, temporal
accuracy, thematic accuracy and lineage – Metadata – GIS Standards –Interoperability - OGC
- Spatial Data Infrastructure.

Data quality in GIS refers to the accuracy, reliability, and suitability of spatial and attribute
data for specific applications. High-quality GIS data ensures correct decision-making,
efficient analysis, and effective mapping. Poor-quality data can lead to errors in spatial
analysis and misinterpretations.

GIS data quality is assessed based on six key aspects:

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1. Completeness

2. Logical Consistency
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3. Positional Accuracy
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4. Temporal Accuracy
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5. Thematic Accuracy

6. Lineage
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1. Completeness
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Completeness refers to how much of the required data is available in a dataset. It checks
whether all necessary geographic features and attributes are included.

Types of Completeness Issues:

• Omission Errors: Missing data (e.g., missing roads in a road network).

• Commission Errors: Extra or redundant data (e.g., duplicate entries).

Example in GIS:

• A land-use map missing certain buildings or roads is considered incomplete.

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2. Logical Consistency

• Logical consistency ensures that data follows correct topological, geometric, and
attribute rules. It checks for errors like gaps, overlaps, and duplicate records.

Types of Logical Consistency Issues:

• Geometric Consistency: No gaps or overlaps between polygons.

• Topological Consistency: Connected features should be properly linked (e.g., roads in

a network).

• Attribute Consistency: Attribute values must be within a valid range (e.g., population
values should not be negative).

Example in GIS:

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• In a road network, all roads should be connected without gaps to allow smooth
routing.
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3. Positional Accuracy

Positional accuracy refers to correctly placing geographic features relative to their true
location on the Earth's surface. It is measured by comparing GIS data to ground-truth data
(e.g., GPS points).

Types of Positional Accuracy:

• Absolute Accuracy: Deviation from the true coordinate location (e.g., GPS surveys).

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• Relative Accuracy: Accuracy of one feature compared to another (e.g., distance

between two buildings).

Example in GIS:

• If a river is misaligned on a map compared to satellite imagery, it has poor positional

accuracy.

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4. Temporal Accuracy
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Temporal accuracy refers to the timeliness of GIS data. It ensures that the dataset represents
the correct time frame.

Types of Temporal Accuracy Issues:

• Outdated Data: Old satellite images may not reflect current land use.

• Incorrect Time Stamps: Attribute data may be linked to the wrong period.

Example in GIS:

• A 10-year-old road network dataset may not show newly constructed highways,
leading to outdated analysis.

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5. Thematic Accuracy

Thematic accuracy refers to the correctness of attribute data assigned to spatial features. It
ensures that classification labels are correct and meaningful.

Types of Thematic Accuracy Issues:

• Misclassification: Incorrectly categorizing land cover types (e.g., labeling a forest as a

grassland).

• Incorrect Attributes: Wrong population values assigned to administrative boundaries.

Example in GIS:

• A land cover map misclassifying an urban area as agricultural land indicates low
thematic accuracy.

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6. Lineage

Lineage refers to the history and origin of GIS data, including its sources, transformations,
and processing steps. It helps in tracking data modifications and ensuring reliability.

Key Aspects of Lineage:

• Data Source: Original data collection method (e.g., GPS, remote sensing).

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• Processing Steps: Any transformations applied (e.g., coordinate conversion,

reclassification).

• Accuracy Reports: Documentation of data quality checks.

Example in GIS:

• A forest cover dataset derived from a 2020 satellite image should mention the source,
classification methods, and any processing applied.

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3. Importance of Data Quality in GIS

1. Accurate Decision-Making: Poor-quality data leads to incorrect conclusions in urban

planning, disaster management, and resource allocation.

2. Reliable Spatial Analysis: Ensures that GIS models (e.g., flood prediction, route
optimization) are based on valid data.

3. Interoperability: Standardized, high-quality data allows integration with other GIS

datasets and systems.

4. Error Reduction: Identifying and correcting data quality issues prevents costly
mistakes in projects.

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MetaData

Geospatial metadata (also geographic metadata) is a type of metadata applicable

to geographic data and information. Such objects may be stored in a geographic information
system (GIS) or may simply be documents, data-sets, images or other objects, services, or
related items that exist in some other native environment but whose features may be appropriate
to describe in a (geographic) metadata catalog (may also be known as a data directory or data
inventory).

Metadata in GIS refers to "data about data." It provides essential information about a GIS
dataset, including its source, accuracy, format, and purpose. Metadata helps users understand
and evaluate a dataset before using it in analysis or mapping.

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Metadata and GIS Management

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Keeping spatial metadata records is important. From a data management perspective, metadata
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is important for maintaining an organization's investment in spatial data. Metadata benefits an

organization in the following ways: Provides an inventory of data assets Helps determine and
maintain the value of data Helps you determine the reliability and currency of data Supports
decision making Documents legal issues Helps keep data accurate and helps verify accuracy
to support good decision making and cost savings Helps determine budgets because it provides
a clearer understanding of when or if data needs to be updated or repurchased Both data and
time are costly. A GIS development plan that takes metadata into account from the beginning
will save time and money later. Data expense continues to be the largest part of most GIS
budgets, usually more than staff costs. If metadata is part of standard operating procedures,
creating metadata costs virtually nothing. Time and effort related to metadata should be entered
into the budget or project plan of every GIS operation. For example, because GIS technology

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can provide detailed, visual data presentations, it is an indispensable resource for emergency
response. Officials facing homeland security issues understand they need rapid access to many
kinds of data to respond quickly and effectively. Metadata is the key to providing timely
information that can be easily accessed and shared across multi-jurisdictional boundaries at all
levels of government. In emergencies, officials also need to share accurate, up-to-date
information with the media and the public.

Types of Metadata in GIS

1. Descriptive Metadata – Provides details about the dataset, such as title, description,
and keywords.

2. Spatial Metadata – Defines spatial characteristics, including coordinate system,

projection, and extent.

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3. Attribute Metadata – Describes attribute data fields, units, and classification methods.

4. Lineage Metadata – Documents the source and transformation history of the data.
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5. Quality Metadata – Specifies data accuracy, resolution, and validation methods
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Metadata Standards in GIS
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Metadata Standard Developed By Purpose

Standard for US federal

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FGDC (Federal Geographic

United States FGDC agencies and geospatial data
Data Committee) Standard
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users.

International Organization for Global standard for spatial

ISO 19115
Standardization (ISO) metadata.

INSPIRE Metadata Standard for geospatial data

European Union
Standard in Europe.

Applications of Metadata in GIS

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• Data Discovery: Helps users find relevant datasets in GIS databases.

• Data Management: Organizes GIS data systematically for easy retrieval.

• Interoperability: Enables data sharing between different GIS platforms and

organizations.

• Decision-Making: Assists in selecting suitable data for analysis and mapping.

• Data Preservation: Maintains historical records of datasets for future reference.

GIS Standards

GIS standards are a set of rules, guidelines, and protocols that ensure data interoperability,
consistency, accuracy, and efficiency in Geographic Information Systems (GIS). These
standards help different GIS software, datasets, and users work together seamlessly. Its ensures

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• Ensure interoperability between different GIS software and platforms.
• Maintain data quality and accuracy for better decision-making.
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• Facilitate data sharing across organizations and countries.
• Improve efficiency in data collection, storage, and analysis.
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Types of GIS Standards

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GIS standards are categorized into different types based on their purpose and application. The
main types include:
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1. Data Standards
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Data standards define how spatial data is structured, formatted, and stored to ensure uniformity
and consistency across different GIS applications.

Types of Data Standards:

1. Spatial Data Standards: Define how geographic features (points, lines, polygons) are
represented.

o Example: ISO 19107 (Spatial Schema Standard)

2. Attribute Data Standards: Define how non-spatial data (e.g., names, population, land
use) is recorded.

o Example: ISO 19110 (Feature Catalog Standard)

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3. Metadata Standards: Provide information about GIS data, including its source,
accuracy, and format.

o Example: ISO 19115 (Metadata Standard), FGDC Metadata Standard

2. Data Exchange Standards

Data exchange standards define how GIS data is shared between different software and
systems. These standards ensure that GIS users can access and transfer spatial data efficiently.

Types of Data Exchange Standards:

1. File Format Standards: Define common file formats for storing GIS data.

o Examples: Shapefile (.shp), GeoJSON (.geojson), GML (Geography

Markup Language)

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2. Web Services Standards: Define how GIS data is accessed and shared online.

o Examples:
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▪ WMS (Web Map Service): Provides map images over the web.
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▪ WFS (Web Feature Service): Allows users to query and edit vector
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data online.

▪ WCS (Web Coverage Service): Enables access to raster data over the
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web.
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3. Interoperability Standards: Ensure compatibility between different GIS platforms.

o Example: OGC Simple Feature Access (SFA) for vector data

3. Coordinate Reference System (CRS) Standards

CRS standards define how GIS data is geographically referenced, ensuring that maps align
correctly with real-world locations.

Types of CRS Standards:

1. Geographic Coordinate Systems (GCS): Uses latitude and longitude to define

locations.

o Example: WGS 84 (EPSG:4326), NAD83

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2. Projected Coordinate Systems (PCS): Converts the curved Earth into a flat map for
precise measurements.

o Example: UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator), State Plane Coordinate

System (SPCS)

3. Datum Standards: Define reference models for measuring positions on Earth.

o Example: NAD27, NAD83, WGS 84

4. Transformation Standards: Define methods for converting coordinates between

different systems.

o Example: ISO 19111 (Spatial Referencing Standard)

4. Data Quality Standards

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Data quality standards ensure that GIS data is accurate, reliable, and suitable for use in
decision-making.
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Types of Data Quality Standards:
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1. Positional Accuracy Standards: Measure how accurately GIS features match their
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real-world locations.

o Example: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA)

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2. Attribute Accuracy Standards: Ensure that attribute data (e.g., population, land use)
is correct.
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3. Logical Consistency Standards: Ensure that spatial relationships between GIS

features are correct (e.g., roads should not cross rivers without a bridge).

4. Temporal Accuracy Standards: Define how up-to-date GIS data is.

5. Metadata Standards: Provide documentation on data quality and source.

o Example: ISO 19157 (Geospatial Data Quality Standard)

5. GIS Software Standards

Software standards define how GIS applications process and store spatial data.

Types of GIS Software Standards:

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1. Vector Data Standards: Define how points, lines, and polygons are stored and
analyzed.

o Example: OGC Simple Feature Specification (SFS)

2. Raster Data Standards: Define how raster images and grid-based GIS data are
processed.

o Example: ISO 19123 (Coverage Geometry Standard)

3. 3D GIS Standards: Define how 3D models of cities and landscapes are represented.

o Example: CityGML for 3D city models

4. Sensor Web Standards: Define how real-time sensor data (e.g., weather, GPS) is
integrated into GIS.

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o Example: OGC Sensor Web Enablement (SWE)

6. Legal and Policy Standards

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These standards define the legal aspects of GIS data usage, such as ownership, privacy, and
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licensing.
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Types of Legal and Policy Standards:

1. Data Privacy Standards: Ensure that sensitive geospatial data (e.g., personal
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addresses, military maps) is protected.

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2. Open Data Standards: Define how GIS data is shared as open-source datasets.

o Example: INSPIRE Directive (European Union standard for open GIS

data)

3. Licensing Standards: Regulate how GIS data is distributed and used.

o Example: Creative Commons (CC), Open Database License (ODbL)

7. Cartographic Standards

Cartographic standards ensure that GIS maps are visually clear, easy to interpret, and follow
proper design principles.

Types of Cartographic Standards:

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1. Symbology Standards: Define how map symbols and colors are used.

o Example: ISO 19117 (Cartographic Representation Standard)

2. Map Labeling Standards: Define how text and labels are displayed on maps.

3. Scale and Projection Standards: Ensure maps use appropriate scales and coordinate
systems.

Interoperability

Interoperability in GIS refers to the ability of different GIS systems, software, and data formats
to work together seamlessly. It allows users to share, exchange, and integrate geospatial data
and services across different platforms without compatibility issues. Importance of
Interoperability

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• Enables collaboration between different organizations and GIS users.

• Reduces redundancy in data collection and storage.

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• Improves data accessibility and decision-making.
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• Supports integration of GIS with other technologies like remote sensing, GPS, and web
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services.

Types of Interoperability in GIS

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Interoperability in GIS can be classified into four main types:

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1. Syntactic Interoperability

• Ensures that GIS software can understand and exchange data formats correctly.

• Example: A GIS system can read and write Shapefiles (.shp), GeoJSON, and KML
without errors.

2. Semantic Interoperability

• Ensures that GIS systems interpret the meaning of the data in the same way.

• Example: A land cover dataset from one system must be correctly classified when
imported into another system.

3. Technical Interoperability

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• Ensures compatibility between GIS software, hardware, and communication protocols.

• Example: A GPS device must be able to send location data to a GIS application in a
usable format.

4. Organizational Interoperability

• Ensures that different organizations can share GIS data and workflows effectively.

• Example: A government agency and a private company using OGC standards to share
land use data.

GIS Standards for Interoperability

Several global organizations define GIS standards to ensure interoperability:

1. Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Standards

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OGC develops widely accepted GIS standards to ensure interoperability:
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• Web Map Service (WMS): Shares map images over the web.

• Web Feature Service (WFS): Allows users to access and edit vector data online.
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• Web Coverage Service (WCS): Supports sharing of raster data.

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• Geography Markup Language (GML): A universal format for spatial data exchange.

2. ISO GIS Standards

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The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines several GIS-related

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standards:

• ISO 19115 (Metadata Standard): Ensures that GIS datasets have complete metadata.

• ISO 19119 (GIS Services Standard): Defines rules for GIS web services.

• ISO 19157 (Data Quality Standard): Ensures data accuracy and consistency.

3. INSPIRE Directive (European GIS Standard)

The Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe (INSPIRE) ensures geospatial data
sharing across European countries.

Challenges in GIS Interoperability

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Despite the benefits, achieving full interoperability in GIS faces some challenges:

1. Different Data Formats: GIS systems use multiple file formats that may not be
compatible.
2. Variability in Data Standards: Organizations may follow different metadata and
classification rules.
3. Semantic Differences: The same GIS term may have different meanings in different
systems.
4. Software Restrictions: Proprietary GIS software may not support open-source
standards.
Achieving Interoperability in GIS

To improve interoperability, GIS professionals and organizations should:

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• Use Open Standards: Prefer OGC-compliant formats like GeoJSON, GML, and
WMS.
• Adopt Standard Metadata: Follow ISO 19115 for metadata documentation.
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• Ensure Data Compatibility: Convert proprietary file formats to standard ones when
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needed.
• Promote Open-Source GIS: Use software like QGIS, PostGIS, and GDAL that
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support multiple standards.

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Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC)

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The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is an international organization that develops open
standards for geospatial data sharing, interoperability, and services. It ensures that GIS
software, spatial data formats, and web-based mapping services can work together seamlessly
across different platforms and organizations.

OGC has developed several important standards that ensure data sharing and
interoperability in GIS.

1. Web Map Service (WMS)

• Provides map images over the internet using GIS software or web browsers.

• Example: Google Maps, OpenStreetMap, and GIS portals use WMS for online
mapping.

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2. Web Feature Service (WFS)

• Allows users to access, edit, and share vector data (points, lines, polygons) over the
web.
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• Example: A user can edit a land parcel boundary in a GIS application using WFS.
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3. Web Coverage Service (WCS)
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• Used for sharing raster data (satellite images, elevation models) over the internet.

• Example: NASA provides satellite imagery through WCS for research and analysis.
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4. Geography Markup Language (GML)

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• A universal XML-based format for encoding spatial data.

• Example: GML files can store geographic features like roads, rivers, and buildings.

5. Keyhole Markup Language (KML)

• A widely used format for displaying geospatial data in Google Earth and Google
Maps.

• Example: KML files are used to overlay geographic features like routes and points
of interest on maps.

6. Sensor Observation Service (SOS)

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• A standard for real-time sensor data sharing, including weather stations and
environmental monitoring sensors.

• Example: SOS can be used for tracking live air pollution levels in a city.

7. Simple Features (SF)

• Defines standard geometric shapes like points, lines, and polygons for spatial
databases.

• Example: PostGIS, a spatial extension for PostgreSQL, follows SF standards.

Importance of OGC in GIS

OGC plays a critical role in geospatial technology by:

• Promoting open and interoperable spatial data standards.

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Enabling cross-platform compatibility between different GIS software.
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• Facilitating data sharing across government agencies, research institutions, and private
organizations.
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• Supporting web-based GIS services, making spatial data accessible online.
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• Enhancing spatial decision-making by improving data quality and accessibility.

Real-World Applications of OGC Standards

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• Disaster Management: OGC-compliant systems help agencies analyze satellite images,

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track storms, and coordinate relief efforts.

• Urban Planning: City planners use WFS and GML to manage land use, zoning, and
infrastructure development.
• Agriculture: WCS supports climate modeling and precision farming by integrating
remote sensing data.
• Transportation: Real-time GPS tracking and road network mapping rely on OGC web
services.
• Environmental Monitoring: SOS enables live data collection from environmental
sensors for air and water quality analysis.

Spatial Data Infrastructure

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Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) refers to a framework that enables the sharing,
management, and integration of geospatial data across different organizations and systems. It
consists of technologies, policies, and standards that facilitate the efficient use of spatial data
for decision-making.

Components of SDI

SDI consists of five key components:

1. Data

• The foundation of SDI, including spatial and non-spatial datasets.

• Examples: Satellite imagery, topographic maps, demographic data, land-use data.

2. People

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• Users and organizations that create, manage, and use spatial data.

• Examples: Government agencies, businesses, researchers, GIS professionals.

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3. Policies and Standards
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• Guidelines and regulations that ensure data quality, security, and interoperability.
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• Examples: Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards, ISO 19115 (Metadata

Standard), INSPIRE Directive (EU).
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4. Technology
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• The software, hardware, and networks that store and distribute spatial data.

• Examples: GIS software (ArcGIS, QGIS), cloud storage, web-based GIS services
(Google Earth, OpenStreetMap).

5. Network Infrastructure

• The internet-based platforms and services that enable data sharing.

• Examples: Web Map Services (WMS), Web Feature Services (WFS), geoportals
(National Spatial Data Infrastructure portals).

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Levels of SDI Implementation

SDI is implemented at different levels:

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1. Local SDI
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• Used within municipalities or city governments to manage urban planning, land
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records, and infrastructure.

• Example: A city government using GIS for zoning and transportation planning.
2. National SDI (NSDI)
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• A country-wide initiative to standardize and integrate geospatial data from different

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government agencies.
• Example: United States National Spatial Data Infrastructure (US NSDI).
3. Regional SDI

• Facilitates data sharing among multiple countries in a specific region.

• Example: INSPIRE Directive (European Union) ensures geospatial data

interoperability in Europe.

4. Global SDI

• A worldwide initiative for integrating spatial data from multiple countries.

• Example: United Nations Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-

GGIM).

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Benefits of SDI
Benefit Description
Improves Data Access Users can easily search, retrieve, and use spatial data.
Supports governments and businesses in making informed
Enhances Decision-Making
decisions.
Promotes data sharing between organizations and reduces
Encourages Collaboration
duplication.
Standardizes Data
Ensures consistency and quality in geospatial datasets.
Management
Supports Emergency Helps in disaster management by providing real-time
Response geospatial information.

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