Nektons

1. Introduction to Nektons

• Definition:
Nektons are actively swimming aquatic organisms that can move independently of water
currents. Unlike plankton (which drift with currents), nektons have strong locomotor
abilities and can swim against currents.
• Etymology:
The term nekton was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1891, derived from the Greek word
"nektos" meaning "to swim".
• Habitat:
Nektons inhabit all types of freshwater bodies such as:
o Lakes
o Rivers
o Streams
o Reservoirs
o Ponds

2. Characteristics of Nektons

• Mobility: Possess developed muscles and locomotor structures allowing active

swimming.
• Size: Generally larger than plankton.
• Habitat Range: Can occupy different zones of water bodies including surface, mid-
water, and benthic zones.
• Feeding: Predominantly carnivorous or omnivorous. Some are herbivorous.
• Respiration: Aerobic respiration using gills (in fish) or lungs (in amphibians like frogs
during early stages).

3. Major Groups of Nektons in Freshwater Ecosystems

A. Fish (Most Dominant Freshwater Nektons)

• Examples:
o Labeo rohita (Rohu)
o Catla catla
 o Channa spp. (Snakeheads)
o Trout and Perch
• Habitat Role: Predators, prey, or omnivores. Essential in trophic dynamics.
• Reproduction: Oviparous; eggs laid in aquatic environments.

B. Amphibians (During Larval or Aquatic Stages)

• Examples:
o Tadpoles of frogs and toads
o Salamanders in larval stages
• Ecological Role: Act as both predators and prey.

C. Aquatic Reptiles (in some large freshwater bodies)

• Though rare in limnology compared to marine systems, examples include:

o Freshwater turtles (Trionyx)
o Crocodilians in tropical freshwater

D. Aquatic Mammals and Birds (Occasionally)

• Not typically considered in limnological nekton studies due to limited permanent

residence, but examples include:
o Otters
o Beavers
o Waterfowls (e.g., ducks) – considered semi-nektonic

4. Ecological Roles of Nektons

• Trophic Interactions:
o Predators: Many nektons are top predators in freshwater food webs.
o Prey: Serve as food for larger predators including birds and mammals.
• Energy Transfer:
o Facilitate energy movement from lower (planktonic) to higher trophic levels.
• Nutrient Cycling:
o Excretion and decomposition contribute to nutrient regeneration.
• Population Regulation:
o Control populations of plankton, insects, and smaller fish through predation.

5. Adaptations in Nektons

• Streamlined Bodies: Reduce resistance for efficient swimming.

 • Swim Bladders (in fish): Help in buoyancy control.
• Sensory Organs: Well-developed lateral line system, eyes, and olfactory senses.
• Coloration: Camouflage, countershading, or aposematism in some species.

6. Nekton and Limnological Studies

• Bioindicators:
o Presence or absence of certain nekton species indicates water quality.
o Example: Trout indicates high oxygen levels and clean water.
• Fisheries Management:
o Understanding nekton populations is crucial for sustainable fishery practices.
• Pollution Studies:
o Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of pollutants (e.g., heavy metals,
pesticides) are often studied in fish.

7. Threats to Nektons in Freshwater Ecosystems

• Pollution: Industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, sewage.

• Habitat Destruction: Dam construction, deforestation, urbanization.
• Climate Change: Alters water temperature, oxygen levels, and hydrology.
• Overfishing: Unsustainable harvesting of fish species.
• Invasive Species: Compete with native nektons, alter ecosystem balance.

8. Conservation and Management

• Fish Sanctuaries and Protected Areas

• Restocking and Hatchery Programs
• Habitat Restoration: Wetland rehabilitation, buffer zones
• Pollution Control Measures
• Public Awareness and Community Participation

Here's a detailed set of notes on benthos in limnology (the study of inland aquatic ecosystems):
 Benthos
🔹 Definition:

Benthos refers to the community of organisms that live on, in, or near the bottom (benthic
zone) of lakes, rivers, and streams.

🔹 Types of Benthos:

Benthos is generally classified based on location, size, and mobility:

1. Based on Size:

• Macrobenthos: Large enough to be seen with the naked eye (e.g., insect larvae,
mollusks, worms).
• Meiobenthos: Intermediate-sized organisms (e.g., small crustaceans, nematodes).
• Microbenthos: Microscopic organisms (e.g., protozoa, bacteria, diatoms).

2. Based on Habitat:

• Epifauna: Live on the sediment surface (e.g., snails, leeches).

• Infauna: Burrow within the sediment (e.g., oligochaetes, chironomid larvae).
• Periphyton: Microscopic organisms attached to submerged surfaces.

🔹 Ecological Roles of Benthos:

1. Decomposers: Break down organic material and recycle nutrients.

2. Detritivores: Feed on dead organic matter (important for nutrient cycling).
3. Bioindicators: Sensitive to environmental changes → used in pollution assessment.
4. Food Source: Crucial in the food web for fish and other aquatic organisms.

🔹 Factors Affecting Benthic Communities:

1. Substrate Type: Sand, silt, gravel, or organic muck influence species composition.
2. Oxygen Availability: Most benthos require dissolved oxygen, except some anaerobes.
3. Depth and Light: Affects temperature, vegetation, and productivity.
4. Pollution: Heavy metals, organic pollutants, eutrophication affect benthic life.
5. Flow and Current: Flowing vs stagnant water affects oxygen and sediment type.
🔹 Sampling Techniques:

• Ekman Grab: Collects sediment samples in soft-bottom habitats.

• Surber Sampler: Used in streams with hard bottoms.
• Dredges: For deep or large areas.
• Core Samplers: Extract vertical sediment layers for studying stratification.

🔹 Indicator Species (Biomonitoring):

• Oligochaetes & Chironomids: Tolerant to low oxygen and high pollution.

• Mayflies, Stoneflies, Caddisflies (EPT): Sensitive to pollution, indicators of good water
quality.

🔹 Zonation of Benthos in Lakes:

1. Littoral Benthos:
o Shallow zone with aquatic vegetation.
o Rich diversity and biomass.
2. Profundal Benthos:
o Deep zone below the thermocline.
o Low oxygen, low diversity; dominated by tolerant species.
3. Sublittoral Zone:
o Transitional zone; moderate conditions.

🔹 Seasonal Changes:

• Spring/Fall Turnover: Oxygen and nutrients mix → increased benthic activity.

• Winter/Summer Stratification: Reduced oxygen in profundal zone → stress on
benthos.

🔹 Importance in Limnology:

• Nutrient Cycling: Help in release and uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon.

• Sediment Structure: Bioturbation alters sediment texture and chemistry.
 • Energy Flow: Link between detritus and higher trophic levels.

🔹 Human Impacts:

• Eutrophication: Alters benthic composition, promotes tolerant species.

• Sedimentation: Smothers benthic habitats, reduces diversity.
• Contaminants: Accumulate in sediments → bioaccumulation in benthic feeders.

🔹 Examples of Common Benthic Organisms:

Group Examples Role

Insect larvae Chironomids, mayflies, caddisflies Detritivores, indicators

Mollusks Snails, clams Grazers, filter feeders

Worms Oligochaetes Sediment processors

Crustaceans Amphipods, isopods Shredders, scavengers

Algae Diatoms Primary producers (periphyton)

Food Chain in Lakes

The food chain in lakes is a complex web of energy flow and nutrient cycling involving
producers, consumers, and detritivores. It plays a vital role in maintaining ecosystem stability.

🔹 1. Primary Producers (Autotrophs)

These organisms convert solar energy into chemical energy via photosynthesis.
🔸 Types:
Group Examples Habitat

Phytoplankton Diatoms, green algae, cyanobacteria Pelagic (open water)

Periphyton Algae attached to surfaces Littoral zone (on rocks, plants)

Macrophytes Submerged or emergent aquatic plants Shallow waters/littoral zone

🔸 Role:

• Form the base of the food web.

• Produce oxygen and organic matter.
• Influence light penetration and nutrient dynamics.

🔹 2. Consumers (Heterotrophs)

They feed on other organisms and are divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary
consumers.

🔸 a) Primary Consumers (Herbivores):

Feed on primary producers.

Group Examples

Zooplankton Daphnia, rotifers, copepods

Benthic grazers Snails, insect larvae

🔸 b) Secondary Consumers (Carnivores):

Feed on herbivores.

Group Examples

Invertebrate predators Dragonfly larvae, beetles

Small fish Minnows, perch fry

🔸 c) Tertiary Consumers (Top predators):

Feed on smaller predators.

Group Examples

Large fish Pike, bass, lake trout

Birds Herons, kingfishers

🔹 3. Detritivores & Decomposers

These organisms feed on dead organic matter (detritus) and are essential for nutrient
recycling.

🔸 Detritivores:

• Macroinvertebrates: Oligochaete worms, chironomid larvae, amphipods.

• Benthic invertebrates: Scavengers that process organic sediment.

🔸 Decomposers:

• Bacteria and fungi break down complex organic compounds.

• Function mostly in anoxic conditions (profundal zone, deep sediments).

🔸 Role:

• Decompose plant and animal remains.

• Release nutrients back to the system (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus).
• Support microbial loops and bottom-up food web pathways.

🔹 Trophic Levels in Lake Ecosystems:

Tertiary Consumers (e.g., Pike, herons)
↓
Secondary Consumers (e.g., dragonfly larvae, perch)
↓
Primary Consumers (e.g., zooplankton, snails)
↓
Primary Producers (e.g., algae, aquatic plants)
↓
Detritus / Decomposers (e.g., bacteria, detritivores)
Types of Lake Food Webs:

1. Grazing food chain:

o Starts from producers → herbivores → carnivores.
o Dominated by phytoplankton → zooplankton → fish.
2. Detritus food chain:
o Starts from dead organic matter → detritivores → predators.
o Dominates in deeper lakes and sediments.

🔹 Factors Affecting Lake Food Chains:

• Nutrient availability (eutrophic vs oligotrophic lakes).

• Light penetration and water clarity.
• Temperature and stratification.
• Human impacts (eutrophication, pollution, invasive species).
• Oxygen levels (especially in the hypolimnion).

🔹 Special Concepts:

• Trophic Cascade: Top predators indirectly affect producers by controlling herbivores.

• Bottom-up Control: Nutrients regulate productivity from producers upward.
• Top-down Control: Predators control lower trophic levels.

🧠 Summary Table:
Trophic Level Example Organisms Function

Primary Producers Algae, macrophytes Photosynthesis, O₂ production

Primary Consumers Zooplankton, snails Grazing on producers

Secondary Consumers Small fish, insect predators Control herbivores

Tertiary Consumers Large fish, birds Top predators

 Trophic Level Example Organisms Function

Detritivores/Decomposers Worms, bacteria, fungi Nutrient recycling

Biological Productivity in Lakes

🔹 1. Definition:

Biological productivity refers to the rate at which organic matter is produced by living
organisms (mainly plants and algae) through photosynthesis and how it supports consumers in a
lake ecosystem.

• Expressed typically as grams of carbon per square meter per year (g C/m²/yr).
• Productivity = energy flow through the trophic levels.

🔹 2. Types of Productivity:
Type Description

Organic matter produced by autotrophs (e.g., algae,

Primary Productivity
macrophytes).

Gross Primary Productivity

Total organic matter produced via photosynthesis.
(GPP)

Net Primary Productivity GPP minus the energy used in respiration by producers.
(NPP) (NPP = GPP - R)

Secondary Productivity Biomass formed by heterotrophs by consuming producers.

🔹 3. Circulation of Food Materials in Lakes

Internal cycling of nutrients and organic matter drives productivity:

🔸 a) Vertical Circulation (Thermal Stratification & Mixing):

• Lakes undergo seasonal thermal stratification:

o Epilimnion: Warm, well-lit surface layer (high productivity).
o Metalimnion (thermocline): Rapid temperature drop.
o Hypolimnion: Cold, dark, low oxygen (nutrient-rich).
• Spring and Fall Turnover:
o Water column mixes.
o Brings nutrients from bottom sediments to surface, enhancing productivity.
o Redistributes oxygen and food materials.

🔸 b) Horizontal Circulation:

• Wind-driven currents help distribute nutrients, plankton, and detritus.

• Influences availability of food across the lake.

🔸 c) Nutrient Recycling (Detrital Loop):

• Decomposers break down dead organisms.

• Nutrients like N, P, and C are released and re-used by autotrophs.
• Enhances sustainable productivity even without external inputs.

🔸 d) Allochthonous vs Autochthonous Inputs:

• Autochthonous: Produced within the lake (e.g., algae, macrophytes).

• Allochthonous: From outside (e.g., leaf litter, runoff).

🔹 4. Indices of Productivity in Lakes

Productivity can be assessed using quantitative and qualitative indices:

🔸 a) Chlorophyll-a Concentration

• Chlorophyll-a is a pigment in algae → proxy for phytoplankton biomass.

• Measured in µg/L.
• Higher values = higher primary productivity.
🔸 b) Trophic State Index (TSI)

Developed by Carlson (1977) to classify lakes based on productivity.

TSI Score Trophic State Characteristics

< 30 Oligotrophic Clear water, low nutrients, low productivity

40–50 Mesotrophic Moderate nutrients and productivity

> 50 Eutrophic High nutrients, algal blooms, low water clarity

> 70 Hypereutrophic Excessive nutrients, oxygen depletion

TSI based on Secchi depth, chlorophyll-a, and total phosphorus.

🔸 c) Oxygen Production/Consumption

• Oxygen levels measured over 24-hour cycle.

• Increase in daytime O₂ = photosynthesis.
• Decrease at night = respiration.
• Net change gives estimate of NPP.

🔸 d) Carbon Fixation (¹⁴C Method)

• Use of radioactive carbon (¹⁴C) to measure CO₂ uptake by phytoplankton.

• Highly accurate method for GPP and NPP measurement.

🔸 e) Phytoplankton Biomass

• Direct measurement via filtration and drying.

• Often expressed as dry weight or carbon content.
🔸 f) Secchi Disk Transparency

• Simple, indirect measure of water clarity.

• Lower visibility → more algae → higher productivity (but can also indicate turbidity).

🔹 5. Factors Influencing Productivity:

Factor Influence

Nutrient levels More N and P → higher algal growth

Light availability Affects photosynthesis (depth and turbidity matter)

Temperature Influences metabolic and photosynthetic rates

Mixing & circulation Redistributes nutrients and oxygen

Grazing pressure Zooplankton and fish can regulate phytoplankton

🔹 6. Lake Productivity Categories:

Type Productivity (NPP) Characteristics

Oligotrophic < 100 g C/m²/year Low nutrients, deep clear water, low algae

Mesotrophic 100–300 g C/m²/year Moderate clarity and productivity

Eutrophic > 300 g C/m²/year Nutrient-rich, high algal biomass, turbid

Classification of Lakes Based on Productivity

Lakes are classified into trophic states based on their nutrient content, biological
productivity, clarity, and oxygen levels. The main categories are:
🔹 1. Oligotrophic Lakes
🔸 Characteristics:

• Low nutrient concentrations (nitrogen and phosphorus).

• Low primary productivity.
• Clear water with high transparency.
• Deep with well-oxygenated hypolimnion.
• Often found in cold climates or mountainous regions.

🔸 Biological Features:

• Sparse phytoplankton growth.

• Limited fish population, but often supports cold-water species like lake trout.
• Low decomposition rates.

🔸 Typical Values:
Parameter Value

Chlorophyll-a < 2 µg/L

Secchi disk depth > 6 meters

Total phosphorus < 10 µg/L

Trophic State Index < 30

🔸 Examples:

• Lake Superior (USA/Canada)

• Crater Lake (USA)
• Lake Tahoe (USA)

🔹 2. Mesotrophic Lakes
🔸 Characteristics:

• Moderate nutrient levels.

• Intermediate productivity.
• Somewhat clear water with moderate transparency.
• Hypolimnion may have moderate oxygen levels.
🔸 Biological Features:

• Balanced growth of algae and aquatic plants.

• Good habitat for a variety of fish (both cold and warm-water species).
• Moderate biodiversity.

🔸 Typical Values:
Parameter Value

Chlorophyll-a 2–7 µg/L

Secchi disk depth 3–6 meters

Total phosphorus 10–30 µg/L

Trophic State Index 40–50

🔸 Examples:

• Lake Geneva (Switzerland/France)

• Some parts of Lake Michigan (USA)

🔹 3. Eutrophic Lakes
🔸 Characteristics:

• High levels of nutrients (especially phosphorus).

• High biological productivity.
• Turbid water with low transparency.
• Often shallow with oxygen depletion in the hypolimnion during summer.

🔸 Biological Features:

• Frequent algal blooms, especially cyanobacteria.

• High biomass of phytoplankton and aquatic macrophytes.
• Supports warm-water fish, but may experience fish kills due to low oxygen.
• Fast decomposition, leading to nutrient recycling.
🔸 Typical Values:
Parameter Value

Chlorophyll-a > 7 µg/L

Secchi disk depth < 3 meters

Total phosphorus > 30 µg/L

Trophic State Index > 50

🔸 Examples:

• Lake Victoria (Africa)

• Dal Lake (India)
• Lake Erie (USA/Canada)

🔹 Comparison Table:
Feature Oligotrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic

Nutrients Low Moderate High

Productivity Low Medium High

Water Clarity Very clear Moderately clear Turbid

Oxygen in Hypolimnion High Moderate Often depleted

Algal Growth Sparse Moderate Excessive

Fish Species Cold-water Mixed Warm-water

TSI (Trophic State Index) < 30 40–50 > 50

🔹 Other Trophic Categories (less common):

Trophic State Description

Dystrophic Colored (humic) lakes, often acidic, low productivity.

 Trophic State Description

Hypereutrophic Extremely nutrient-rich, heavy algal blooms, severe hypoxia.

Oligo-mesotrophic Transitional between oligotrophic and mesotrophic states.

Bog Lakes

🔹 1. Definition:

Bog lakes are a type of dystrophic lake formed in peaty wetlands or bogs, often characterized
by:

• High organic matter (especially peat)

• Acidic, nutrient-poor waters
• Dark-colored water due to humic substances

They are typically small, shallow, and receive water mainly from
precipitation rather than surface or groundwater inflow (ombrotrophic).

🔹 2. Origin and Formation:

• Often form in glacial depressions or kettle holes.

• Over time, sphagnum moss and other vegetation accumulate, creating thick layers of
peat.
• Surface water becomes isolated, acidic, and nutrient-poor, giving rise to a bog lake.
🔹 3. Physical Characteristics:
Feature Description

Size Small in area, shallow depth

Water Color Brown to tea-colored (due to humic acids, tannins)

Water Source Mainly rainfall (ombrotrophic); minimal surface inflow

Stratification Often strongly stratified in summer; weak mixing

Sediments Organic-rich, mainly peat and decomposed plant matter

🔹 4. Chemical Characteristics:
Parameter Typical Condition

pH Acidic (3.5–5.5) due to humic and fulvic acids

Very low in nitrogen and phosphorus

Nutrients
(oligotrophic/dystrophic)

Oxygen Low, especially in bottom layers (can be anoxic)

Dissolved Organic Carbon

High, from decaying vegetation
(DOC)

Conductivity Low, indicating poor ionic content

🔹 5. Biological Conditions:
🔸 a) Flora:

• Dominated by Sphagnum moss, sedges, carnivorous plants (e.g., Drosera, Utricularia)

• Low planktonic algal biomass due to low nutrients and light limitation
• Floating mats of vegetation (can support trees like black spruce)

🔸 b) Fauna:

• Low species diversity due to harsh chemical environment

 • Fauna adapted to acidic and low oxygen conditions:
o Insect larvae (e.g., chironomids)
o Some specialized crustaceans and amphibians
• Fish are scarce or absent; only acid-tolerant species survive (e.g., brook trout)

🔸 c) Microbial Community:

• Dominated by fungi and acidophilic bacteria

• Play a key role in peat formation and organic matter decomposition

🔹 6. Importance of Bog Lakes:

✅ Ecological Importance:

• Serve as carbon sinks (peat stores large amounts of carbon).

• Provide habitat for rare, endemic, or specialized species.
• Important for studying ecological succession and nutrient-poor ecosystems.

✅ Hydrological Importance:

• Regulate local water balance by storing and slowly releasing rainwater.

• Help in groundwater recharge and maintain regional hydrology.

✅ Scientific Importance:

• Natural laboratories for studying:

o Acidophilic organisms
o Limnological processes in low-nutrient systems
o Impacts of climate change on carbon sequestration

✅ Paleolimnological Records:

• Peat and sediments preserve pollen, spores, and other microfossils.

• Provide data on past climate, vegetation, and environmental changes.

🔹 7. Threats and Human Impacts:

Threat Impact

Drainage for agriculture Destroys peatland ecosystems, reduces water retention

 Threat Impact

Peat extraction Releases stored carbon, disrupts habitat

Acid rain & pollution Further lowers pH, alters microbial and plant communities

Climate change Leads to drying, oxidation of peat, and CO₂ release

🔹 Comparison with Other Lake Types:

Feature Bog Lake Oligotrophic Lake Eutrophic Lake

pH Acidic (3.5–5.5) Neutral to slightly acidic Neutral to alkaline

Nutrients Very low Low High

Water Color Brown (humic) Clear Greenish (algal blooms)

Oxygen Low, often anoxic Well-oxygenated Can be low in bottom layers

Productivity Very low Low High

🧠 Summary Points:

• Bog lakes are acidic, nutrient-poor, and dark-colored lakes formed in peatlands.
• They have low productivity, but high ecological and scientific value.
• Serve as key ecosystems for carbon storage and biodiversity conservation.

Lotic Ecosystem (Flowing Water Systems)

A lotic ecosystem refers to flowing freshwater systems such as rivers, streams, and creeks,
characterized by continuous unidirectional flow, high oxygenation, and dynamic physical and
biological interactions.
🔹 1. Size Classification of Lotic Systems (Stream Order Concept)

Based on the Strahler Stream Order System:

Stream Order Description

1st Order Smallest headwater streams; no tributaries

2nd Order Formed by joining of two 1st-order streams

3rd Order+ Larger systems formed by combination of lower orders

• Headwaters (1st–3rd order): Narrow, shallow, shaded.

• Mid-reaches (4th–6th order): Wider, increased light and flow.
• Large Rivers (7th order and above): Broad channels, slower flow, deep.

🔹 2. Channel Types

Rivers and streams develop various channel patterns influenced by slope, sediment, and
discharge:

🔸 a) Straight Channel

• Uncommon naturally.
• Usually found in steep gradients.
• Often artificially created or maintained.

🔸 b) Meandering Channel

• Snake-like curves.
• Formed in flat, low-gradient areas.
• Features include cut banks, point bars, oxbow lakes, and meander scars.

🔸 c) Braided Channel

• Multiple shallow, interwoven channels.

• Occur in high sediment load areas with variable flow.
🔹 3. Riffles and Pools

Riffles and pools create structural diversity in stream channels:

Feature Riffles Pools

Flow Fast, shallow Slow, deep

Substrate Coarse (gravel, cobble) Fine (silt, sand)

Oxygen High oxygenation (aeration) Lower oxygen, often refuge area

Habitat Suitable for scrapers, grazers Suitable for predators, detritivores

Alternating sequence of riffles and pools enhances biodiversity and habitat

complexity.

🔹 4. Oxbow Lakes and Meander Scars

🔸 Oxbow Lake:

• U-shaped waterbody formed when a river meander is cut off.

• Forms due to erosion (cut bank) and deposition (point bar).
• Becomes isolated from the main channel over time.

🔸 Meander Scar:

• Dry or marshy depressions left behind after oxbow lakes dry out.
• Evidence of the river's past course.

🔹 5. Floodplain

• Flat area adjacent to a river that gets periodically inundated.

• Formed by sediment deposition during floods.

🔸 Functions:

• Nutrient-rich soils → supports agriculture and diverse ecosystems.

• Acts as natural buffer for floods.
 • Crucial for nutrient cycling and habitat diversity (e.g., wetlands, riparian forests).

🔹 6. Stream Gradient (Slope)

• Gradient = Vertical drop / horizontal distance

• Determines flow velocity, erosive power, and sediment transport.

Gradient Type Characteristics

High-gradient Steep, fast-flowing, rocky bed, narrow

Low-gradient Gentle, slow-flowing, meandering, muddy

🔹 7. The River Continuum Concept (RCC)

A foundational model in stream ecology describing longitudinal changes from headwaters to

mouth.

🔸 Developed by Vannote et al. (1980)

🔸 Key Ideas:

• Stream structure and function change predictably along the river's length.
• Emphasizes energy sources, organism types, and functional feeding groups (FFGs).

🔸 Longitudinal Zones in RCC:

Dominant
Zone Characteristics Energy Source
Organisms

Headwaters (1st– Shaded, low light, fast Allochthonous (leaf Shredders,

3rd order) current litter) collectors

Mid-reaches (4th– Wider, more light, Autochthonous (algae, Grazers,

6th order) moderate flow periphyton) collectors

Large Rivers (7th+ Deep, turbid, less light Fine POM, Collectors (filter-
order) at depth phytoplankton feeders)
 POM = Particulate Organic Matter (Coarse and Fine)

🔸 Functional Feeding Groups (FFGs):

Group Role Common Habitats

Shredders Break down coarse organic matter Headwaters

Grazers Feed on algae/periphyton Mid-reaches

Collectors Filter or gather fine POM All zones, especially lower

Predators Consume other organisms All zones

🔹 8. Ecological Importance of Lotic Ecosystems

• High biodiversity (fish, macroinvertebrates, amphibians, riparian plants).

• Crucial for nutrient cycling, oxygen distribution, and food web support.
• Provide ecosystem services: drinking water, agriculture, fisheries, flood control.

🧠 Summary Table:
Feature Key Point

Size classification Based on stream order (1st to 7th+)

Channel types Straight, meandering, braided

Riffles & Pools Provide habitat diversity and oxygenation

Oxbow Lake Formed from cut-off river meanders

Meander Scar Dry remnants of oxbow lakes

Floodplain Fertile land, flood buffer, habitat for many species

Stream Gradient Influences velocity, sediment transport, habitat structure

RCC Describes predictable changes in river ecosystems downstream

Introduction to Applied Limnology

🔹 1. What is Limnology?

Limnology is the scientific study of inland waters — including lakes, rivers, ponds,
reservoirs, wetlands, and groundwater — covering their biological, physical, chemical, and
geological aspects.

• Derived from the Greek word “limne” meaning lake or pond.

• Applied Limnology uses limnological principles to solve environmental problems like
pollution, eutrophication, water management, fisheries, and aquatic ecosystem
restoration.

🔹 2. History and Development of Limnology

🕰️ Early History (Pre-19th Century)

• Water bodies were observed philosophically or for utility (e.g., irrigation, fishing).
• Naturalists noted aquatic plants and animals without formal classification.

🧪 19th Century – Birth of Modern Limnology

• Franz von Wulfen (1781): Early microscopic observations of freshwater algae.

• Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (1830s): Pioneering work on microscopic life in water,
including protozoa and diatoms.
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674) (even earlier): First to observe microorganisms in
water.

📚 Founding of Limnology

• François-Alphonse Forel (1841–1912):

o Swiss scientist, considered the “Father of Limnology”.
o Studied Lake Geneva.
o Coined the term "limnology" in the 1890s.
o Wrote "Le Léman", a landmark monograph on lake science.
🔹 3. Discovery of Plankton
🔸 What is Plankton?

• Plankton are small or microscopic organisms drifting in water, including

phytoplankton (plants/algae) and zooplankton (animals).

🔍 Discovery:

• Victor Hensen (1887):

o German marine biologist.
o First used the term “plankton” (from Greek planktos, meaning “drifter” or
“wanderer”).
o Developed plankton nets to quantify and study these organisms.
o Laid the foundation for biological productivity and food web studies in aquatic
systems.

🔹 4. Relationship with Oceanography

• Oceanography is the study of the oceans (marine waters), while limnology deals with
inland freshwater.
• Both disciplines study aquatic ecosystems, with overlap in:
o Plankton dynamics
o Biogeochemical cycles
o Hydrology and circulation
o Pollution and nutrient loading
• Limnology evolved independently, but drew many methods from oceanography.
o Limnologists adapted oceanographic tools (e.g., water samplers, plankton nets)
to smaller freshwater systems.

🔹 5. Old Terms and Early Concepts

Term / Concept Description

Original German term by Victor Hensen for drifting

Plancton
aquatic life
 Term / Concept Description

Actively swimming aquatic organisms (e.g., fish),

Nekton
contrasted with plankton

Bottom-dwelling organisms in aquatic environments

Benthos
(term formalized in early 1900s)

Periphyton Algae and microbes attached to submerged surfaces

Early classification of water quality based on

Saprobity System decomposer organisms (e.g., saprobic, oligosaprobic,
polysaprobic zones)

Concepts to distinguish internally (auto) vs externally

Autochthonous/Allochthonous
(allo) derived organic matter in water bodies

🔹 6. Branches of Limnology (Modern Scope)

Branch Focus Area

Descriptive
Observational study of water bodies
Limnology

Theoretical
Mathematical modeling of limnological processes
Limnology

Practical solutions for water quality, management, and

Applied Limnology
conservation

Trophic Limnology Energy flow and nutrient dynamics

Ecological Limnology Interactions between organisms and their aquatic environment

🔹 7. Importance of Applied Limnology

• Water quality assessment and management

• Monitoring of aquatic pollution (chemical & biological)
• Eutrophication control and lake restoration
• Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture planning
 • Wetland conservation and hydrological planning
• Climate change studies in freshwater systems

🧠 Quick Recap: Key Milestones

Year Milestone

1674 Leeuwenhoek observes microorganisms in water

1830s Ehrenberg studies freshwater microflora

1887 Hensen coins “plankton”; quantitative plankton studies

1892–1904 Forel publishes Le Léman, coins term “limnology”

Early 1900s Limnology expands to lakes, rivers, and applied sciences