Aircraft Systems &

Instruments

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Instrument panel for a light airplane. (Piper Aircraft Co.) Sathish D/ Aero/ SOU
Pitot and Pitot-Static Tube

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• Pitot tube and pitot-static tube are similar;
both are used to find out the local velocity
of fluid. However, they differ in construction.
• The pitot tube consists a single inner tube to
measure the stagnation pressure. A separate
hole is provided somewhere else to measure
static pressure and hence to find the velocity
of fluid flow by using the differential head.

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• he pitot-static tube, also known as Prandtl
tube measures both stagnation pressure and
static pressure using the same device. It
consists two holes in the tube.
• The inner hole is known as stagnation tube,
which measures stagnation pressure. The
outer one is known as static tube, which
measures static pressure.
• The inner tube directed to upstream while
the opening of the outer tube is directed to
perpendicular to the flow lines.
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Pitot Static System

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 • The pitot-static system includes a few
components: a pitot tube and one or
more static ports—which you’ve likely
checked numerous times during the
preflight inspection—and the associated
lines that run from the pitot tube and the
static ports to the airspeed indicator,
vertical speed indicator, and altimeter.

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 • You’re checking the pitot tube and
static ports to ensure there’s no
blockage, because the presence of
debris or insects could prevent the
pitot tube and ports from doing their
job—which is to sample air pressure
that in turn is measured by the
airspeed indicator, vertical speed
indicator, and altimeter.

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 • The pitot tube is usually mounted on
the wing of the airplane so that it
faces into the relative wind. A small
hole in the tube allows impact air
pressure—also known as ram air
pressure—to enter.
• The static ports are attached to the
airplane’s fuselage, and they read
static air pressure.

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 • The airspeed indicator compares both types of
air pressure to provide a readout for the pilot.
The airspeed indicator is the only instrument in
the pitot-static system that uses both types of air
pressure.
• The altimeter, which displays altitude in feet, uses
static pressure to sense pressure changes.
• The vertical speed indicator measures static
pressure differential to display rate of climb or
descent in feet per minute.

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Pitot-static errors
• When it is not being flown, put a little sleeve called a pitot cover on its
pitot tube.
• The cover protects the pitot tube from insects or dirt entering either of
its ports—the one in the front that reads air pressure, and the one in
the back that is a drainage hole in the event you fly in precipitation.
• Check both openings during a preflight inspection.
• A clog in the front of the pitot tube will cause the airspeed indicator to
read zero, as it will not sense a difference between static and ram air
pressure.

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• A clogged pitot tube affects only the airspeed indicator.
• One or more clogged static ports will affect the airspeed indicator, the
vertical speed indicator, and the altimeter.
• The airspeed indicator will continue to operate, but it won’t be
accurate.
• Meanwhile, the vertical speed indicator will show a constant zero
indication, and the altimeter will freeze at the altitude at which the
blockage occurred.

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Types of Airspeed
• Indicated airspeed (IAS), is read directly off the ASI. It has no
correction for air density variations, installation or instrument errors.
• Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is corrected for installation and instrument
errors. An airspeed calibration chart is available for any remaining
errors.
• True airspeed (TAS) is CAS corrected for altitude and nonstandard
temperature. TAS is used for flight planning.
• TAS increases as altitude increases, as air density decreases. TAS may
be determined via a flight computer, such as the E6B. Some ASIs have
a TAS ring. Alternatively, a rule of thumb is to add 2 percent to the
CAS for every 1,000 ft (300 m) of altitude gained.
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Air Speed Indicator
• The airspeed indicator (ASI) or airspeed gauge is a flight instrument
indicating the airspeed of an aircraft in kilometers per hour (km/h),
knots (kn), miles per hour (MPH) and/or meters per second (m/s).
• The recommendation by ICAO is to use km/h, however knots is currently
the most used unit.
• The ASI measures the pressure differential between static pressure
from the static port, and total pressure from the pitot tube. This
difference in pressure is registered with the ASI pointer on the face of
the instrument.

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• The ASI is the only flight instrument that uses
both the static system and the pitot system.
Static pressure enters the ASI case, while
total pressure flexes the diaphragm, which
is connected to the ASI pointer via
mechanical linkage.
• The pressures are equal when the aircraft is
stationary on the ground, and hence shows
a reading of zero.

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 • When the aircraft is moving forward,
air entering the pitot tube is at a
greater pressure than the static line,
which flexes the diaphragm, moving
the pointer.
• The ASI is checked before takeoff for
a zero reading, and during takeoff
that it is increasing appropriately

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• The pitot tube may become blocked, because of insects, dirt or failure
to remove the pitot cover. A blockage will prevent ram air from
entering the system.
• If the pitot opening is blocked, but the drain hole is open, the system
pressure will drop to ambient pressure, and the ASI pointer will drop to
a zero reading.
• If both the opening and drain holes are blocked, the ASI will not
indicate any change in airspeed.

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• However, the ASI pointer will show altitude changes, as the associated
static pressure changes. If both the pitot tube and the static system are
blocked, the ASI pointer will read zero.
• If the static ports are blocked but the pitot tube remains open, the ASI
will operate, but inaccurately.

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Altimeter

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Altimeter
• The big hand is at hundreds of feet, the little hand is at
thousands of feet. If there’s a small white line, it reads in
tens of thousands of feet.
• The sensitive altimeter still used in aviation was patented
in 1936 by Paul Kollsman, its inventor. The measurement
of altitude is altimetry.
• The altimeter measures the height of an aircraft above a
fixed level. The instrument senses this by taking the
ambient air pressure from the static port. That air is
plumbed through the back of the panel and into the back
case of the altimeter.

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• Inside the altimeter is a sealed disc called
an aneroid, or bellows.
• As the aircraft goes up, the pressure inside
the case decreases and the bellows expand.
• The opposite happens as the aircraft
descends. The bellows are mechanically
connected to the face of the instrument
through gears.

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• It is Kollsman’s invention that assists the
pilot: The window on the front of the
instrument allows the pilot to set the
altimeter to the current local pressure, so
it will display an accurate height above
sea level.

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Vertical Speed Indicator
• A Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI), also known as a Rate of Climb and
Descent Indicator (RCDI) is an instrument which indicates the rate of
climb or descent of an aircraft.

• The VSI uses the aircraft pitot-static system to determine the vertical
speed and depicts the result on a conventional needle and circular
scale instrument, or on a ribbon at the side of an Electronic Flight
Instrument System EADI.

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Conventional VSI EADI

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• The first is a conventional indication while on the second instrument, the
vertical speed is indicated on the scale at the extreme right of the instrument.

• In a simple VSI, a barometric capsule is contained in a sealed case. The

capsule is fed with static pressure from the pitot-static system, while the case
is also connected to that system through a calibrated nozzle. The nozzle
restricts the passage of air so that there is a time delay between a change in
static pressure and that pressure being experienced within the case.
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 • Thus, if the aircraft climbs (or
descends), the pressure within the
capsule will decrease (increase)
while that within the case will
decrease (increase) at a lower
rate due to the presence of the
nozzle. Movement of the capsule
is translated into movement of a
needle by a mechanical system.
simple Vertical Speed Indicator

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Gyroscopic Flight Instruments
• Gyroscopic flight instruments of some description are used in most general
aviation aircraft and in older commercial aircraft. Examples of such
instruments include attitude indicators, heading indicators and turn
coordinators (turn and slip indicator).
• The gyroscopes within the instruments are usually electrically or vacuum
driven and make use of the basic gyroscopic principles to display the
attitude of the aircraft. In more modern installations, mechanical gyroscopes
have been replaced by laser gyros.
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Gyroscopic Principles

The principal characteristic of a gyro which makes it suitable for use in

attitude instruments is Rigidity in Space.

A secondary gyroscopic principle which must be understood and

compensated for, as necessary, is Precession.

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Precession of a gyroscope resulting from an
applied deflective force

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Sources of Power
• In some aircraft, all the gyros are vacuum, pressure, or electrically
operated. In other aircraft, vacuum or pressure systems provide the
power for the heading and attitude indicators, while the electrical
system provides the power for the turn coordinator.
• Most aircraft have at least two sources of power to ensure at least one
source of bank information is available if one power source fails.
• The vacuum or pressure system spins the gyro by drawing a stream of
air against the rotor vanes to spin the rotor at high speed, much like the
operation of a waterwheel or turbine.

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• One source of vacuum for the gyros is a vane-type engine-driven pump that
is mounted on the accessory case of the engine. Pump capacity varies in
different aircraft, depending on the number of gyros.

• A typical vacuum system consists of an engine-driven vacuum pump, relief

valve, air filter, gauge, and tubing necessary to complete the connections.
The gauge is mounted in the aircraft’s instrument panel and indicates the
amount of pressure in the system.

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 • As shown in Figure, air is drawn into
the vacuum system by the engine-
driven vacuum pump. It first goes
through a filter, which prevents
foreign matter from entering the
vacuum or pressure system. The air
then moves through the attitude and
heading indicators where it causes
the gyros to spin.

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• A relief valve prevents the vacuum pressure, or suction, from exceeding prescribed
limits. After that, the air is expelled overboard or used in other systems, such as for
inflating pneumatic deicing boots. It is important to monitor vacuum pressure during
flight, because the attitude and heading indicators may not provide reliable
information when suction pressure is low. The vacuum, or suction, gauge is generally
marked to indicate the normal range. Some aircraft are equipped with a warning
light that illuminates when the vacuum pressure drops below the acceptable level.

• When the vacuum pressure drops below the normal operating range, the
gyroscopic instruments may become unstable and inaccurate. Cross-checking the
instruments routinely is a good habit to develop.

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Turn Indicators

Turn indicators rely on controlled precession for their operation

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• Aircraft use two types of turn indicators: turn-and-slip indicators and turn
coordinators.
• Because of the way the gyro is mounted, the turn-and-slip indicator shows only the
rate of turn in degrees per second.
• The turn coordinator is mounted at an angle, or canted, so it can initially show roll
rate. When the roll stabilizes, it indicates rate of turn.
• Both instruments indicate turn direction and quality (coordination), and also serve
as a backup source of bank information in the event an attitude indicator fails.
• Coordination is achieved by referring to the inclinometer, which consists of a liquid-
filled curved tube with a ball inside.

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Turn-and-Slip Indicator
• The gyro in the turn-and-slip indicator rotates in the vertical plane corresponding to
the aircraft’s longitudinal axis. A single gimbal limits the planes in which the gyro
can tilt, and a spring works to maintain a center position.
• Because of precession, a yawing force causes the gyro to tilt left or right, as
viewed from the pilot seat. The turn-and-slip indicator uses a pointer, called the
turn needle, to show the direction and rate of turn.
• The turn-and-slip indicator is incapable of “tumbling” off its rotational axis because
of the restraining springs. When extreme forces are applied to a gyro, the gyro is
displaced from its normal plane of rotation, rendering its indications invalid.
Certain instruments have specific pitch and bank limits that induce a tumble of the
gyro.

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Turn Coordinator
• The gimbal in the turn coordinator is canted; therefore, its gyro can sense both rate
of roll and rate of turn. Since turn coordinators are more prevalent in training
aircraft, this discussion concentrates on that instrument. When rolling into or out of a
turn, the miniature aircraft banks in the direction the aircraft is rolled. A rapid roll
rate causes the miniature aircraft to bank more steeply than a slow roll rate.

• The turn coordinator can be used to establish and maintain a standard-rate turn by
aligning the wing of the miniature aircraft with the turn index. Figure shows a
picture of a turn coordinator. There are two marks on each side (left and right) of
the face of the instrument. The first mark is used to reference a wings level zero
rate of turn. The second mark on the left and right side of the instrument serve to
indicate a standard rate of turn. A standard-rate turn is defined as a turn rate of
3° per second. The turn coordinator indicates only the rate and direction of turn; it
does not display a specific angle of bank.
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If inadequate right rudder is applied in a right turn, a slip results. Too much right rudder causes the aircraft to skid through
the turn. Centering the ball results in a coordinated turn.
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Inclinometer
• The inclinometer is used to depict aircraft yaw, which is the side-to-side movement of the
aircraft’s nose. During coordinated, straight-and-level flight, the force of gravity causes
the ball to rest in the lowest part of the tube, centered between the reference lines.
Coordinated flight is maintained by keeping the ball centered. If the ball is not centered, it
can be centered by using the rudder.

• To center the ball, apply rudder pressure on the side to which the ball is deflected. Use the
simple rule, “step on the ball,” to remember which rudder pedal to press. If aileron and
rudder are coordinated during a turn, the ball remains centered in the tube. If
aerodynamic forces are unbalanced, the ball moves away from the center of the tube

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• As shown in Figure, in a slip, the rate of
turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and
the ball moves to the inside of the turn. In a
skid, the rate of turn is too great for the
angle of bank, and the ball moves to the
outside of the turn. To correct for these
conditions, and improve the quality of the
turn, remember to “step on the ball.”
Varying the angle of bank can also help
restore coordinated flight from a slip or
skid. To correct for a slip, decrease bank
and/or increase the rate of turn. To correct
for a skid, increase the bank and/or
decrease the rate of turn.

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Yaw String
One additional tool that can be added to the aircraft is a yaw string. A yaw string
is simply a string or piece of yarn attached to the center of the wind screen. When
in coordinated flight, the string trails straight back over the top of the wind screen.
When the aircraft is either slipping or skidding, the yaw string moves to the right or
left depending on the direction of slip or skid.
Instrument Check
During preflight, ensure that the inclinometer is full of fluid and has no air bubbles.
The ball should also be resting at its lowest point. When taxiing, the turn coordinator
should indicate a turn in the correct direction while the ball moves opposite the
direction of the turn.
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Attitude Indicator
• The attitude indicator, with its miniature aircraft and horizon bar, displays a picture of the
attitude of the aircraft. The relationship of the miniature aircraft to the horizon bar is the
same as the relationship of the real aircraft to the actual horizon. The instrument gives an
instantaneous indication of even the smallest changes in attitude.

• The gyro in the attitude indicator is mounted in a horizontal plane and depends upon
rigidity in space for its operation. The horizon bar represents the true horizon. This bar is
fixed to the gyro and remains in a horizontal plane as the aircraft is pitched or banked
about its lateral or longitudinal axis, indicating the attitude of the aircraft relative to the
true horizon.

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 • The gyro spins in the horizontal plane and
resists deflection of the rotational path. Since
the gyro relies on rigidity in space, the aircraft
actually rotates around the spinning gyro.

Attitude indicator

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• An adjustment knob is provided with which the pilot may move the miniature aircraft up or
down to align the miniature aircraft with the horizon bar to suit the pilot’s line of vision.
Normally, the miniature aircraft is adjusted so that the wings overlap the horizon bar when
the aircraft is in straight-and-level cruising flight.

• The pitch and bank limits depend upon the make and model of the instrument. Limits in the
banking plane are usually from 100° to 110°, and the pitch limits are usually from 60° to
70°. If either limit is exceeded, the instrument will tumble or spill and will give incorrect
indications until realigned. A number of modern attitude indicators do not tumble.

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Attitude representation by the attitude indicator corresponds to the relation of the aircraft to the real horizon

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• Every pilot should be able to interpret the banking scale illustrated in above
Figure. Most banking scale indicators on the top of the instrument move in the same
direction from that in which the aircraft is actually banked. Some other models
move in the opposite direction from that in which the aircraft is actually banked.

• This may confuse the pilot if the indicator is used to determine the direction of
bank. This scale should be used only to control the degree of desired bank. The
relationship of the miniature aircraft to the horizon bar should be used for an
indication of the direction of bank.

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• The attitude indicator is reliable and the most realistic flight instrument
on the instrument panel. Its indications are very close approximations of
the actual attitude of the aircraft.

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Heading Indicator
• The heading indicator is fundamentally a
mechanical instrument designed to facilitate
the use of the magnetic compass. Errors in
the magnetic compass are numerous, making
straight flight and precision turns to headings
difficult to accomplish, particularly in
turbulent air. A heading indicator, however, is
not affected by the forces that make the
magnetic compass difficult to interpret.

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A heading indicator displays headings based on a 360° azimuth, with the final zero omitted. For example, “6” represents
060°, while “21” indicates 210°. The adjustment knob is used to align the heading indicator with the magnetic compass
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• The operation of the heading indicator depends upon the principle of rigidity in space.
The rotor turns in a vertical plane and fixed to the rotor is a compass card. Since the rotor
remains rigid in space, the points on the card hold the same position in space relative to
the vertical plane of the gyro. The aircraft actually rotates around the rotating gyro, not
the other way around. As the instrument case and the aircraft revolve around the vertical
axis of the gyro, the card provides clear and accurate heading information.

• Because of precession caused by friction, the heading indicator creeps or drifts from its set
position. Among other factors, the amount of drift depends largely upon the condition of
the instrument. If the bearings are worn, dirty, or improperly lubricated, the drift may be
excessive.

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• Another error in the heading indicator is caused by the fact that the gyro is
oriented in space, and the Earth rotates in space at a rate of 15° in 1 hour.
Thus, discounting precession caused by friction, the heading indicator may
indicate as much as 15° error per every hour of operation.

• Some heading indicators referred to as horizontal situation indicators (HSI)

receive a magnetic north reference from a magnetic slaving transmitter and
generally need no adjustment. The magnetic slaving transmitter is called a
magnetometer.

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Directional Gyro
• The directional gyro is a gyro-operated directional reference instrument designed
to eliminate some of the problems associated with the magnetic compass.

• The gyro does not seek the north pole; however, it will continue to tell the pilot of
an aircraft whether the aircraft is holding a particular heading. The directional
gyro must be reset by the pilot to the magnetic compass indication from time to
time to correct for precession or drift after a period of operation, usually after
every 15 min.

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• The airborne directional gyro consists of a gyro rotor mounted in a set of gimbals so that
the position of its spin axis can be maintained independent of the case of the instrument.

• The spin axis is normally horizontal. The axis of the inner gimbal is also horizontal and is
perpendicular to the spin axis.

• The outer gimbal is pivoted on a vertical axis, so that all three axes are mutually
perpendicular. It is the relative angle between the outer gimbal and a reference point on
the case that is measured by the instrument and presented on the dial.

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• Since the spin axis is horizontal and the case can be considered aligned with the
directional axis of the aircraft, the angle presented on the dial is also the angle
between the heading of the aircraft and the direction of the spin axis of the gyro.

• Any change in the heading of the aircraft is indicated on the dial, since the position
of the gyro is rigid in space and is not affected by the motion of the aircraft.

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 • The principal parts of a directional gyro are
illustrated in Fig. Observe the gyro with the X axis, the
inner gimbal with the Y axis, and the outer gimbal
with the Z axis. When the gyro is spinning, it will
maintain its rigid position in space even though the
case of the instrument is rotated about it in any
direction. When the instrument is mounted in an
aircraft and in operation, it is easy to understand that
as the aircraft turns to the right or left, there will be a
relative movement between the dial mounted on the
outer gimbal and the instrument case. The amount of
this movement will indicate to the pilot the number of
degrees through which the airplane has turned.
Simplified drawing of a directional gyro.

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• The designs of the dial faces for directional gyros vary widely, but they all indicate
a value in degrees from 0° to 360°. A knob is provided on the instrument that
permits the reading to be changed by the pilot. The reading is usually made to
coincide with the average reading of a magnetic compass. The directional-gyro
instrument is used as a reference during flight instead of the magnetic compass,
since the magnetic compass fluctuates and oscillates considerably during
maneuvers. The directional gyro is a stable reference: hence the readings will be
comparatively stable for normal flight maneuvers.
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Engine Instruments
• Engine instruments are necessary in order that the flight crew can
properly adjust and monitor engine system operations.

• These instruments are also useful to the technician when evaluating and
troubleshooting engine systems.

• The principles of operation of most engine instruments are the same as

have been discussed for many other aircraft instruments.

• These include the use of electrical temperature sensors and bourdon

tubes or bellows to measure pressures.
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Tachometers
• Tachometers are used to measure engine rpm.

• When discussing reciprocating engines, the crankshaft rpm is measured

and indicated with the unit’s rpm indicator.

• For helicopters and free-turbine propellers, the rpm of the rotor or

propeller is indicated in rpm.

• For turbine engines, the engine rpm is indicated in percent of rated rpm.

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 • Tachometers may be mechanically or
electrically operated.
• Mechanically operated tachometers
may be driven directly by the use of a
flyweight mechanism, as Fig.1shows, or
A mechanically operated tachometer. by a magnetic drag cup, as shown Fig. 2

Illustration of magnetic tachometer.

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 • The magnetic tachometer is the most
popular type in use in general
aviation.
• This tachometer is operated by a
flexible shaft that is rotated by a
drive on the rear of the engine.
• As the shaft turns, it rotates a
magnet inside of an aluminum drag
cup in the instrument.
• The rotation of the magnet creates
eddy currents in the drag cup and
causes it to move in the same
direction as the magnets.

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 • A light coil spring opposes this
rotation.
• The faster the speed of rotation, the
greater the deflection of the drag
cup and the higher the indication of
the needle attached to the drag
cup.
• Drag-cup tachometer cables should
be routed so as to avoid kinks.
• If the tachometer oscillates, or
“bounces,” the cable should be
inspected for binding, damage, or
lack of lubrication.

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Electric tachometer system

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• Electric tachometers are used on large aircraft where the distance from
the engine to the instrument panel makes mechanical tachometers
impractical.

• This tachometer uses a three-phase ac alternator to generate a signal.

• This signal drives a synchronous motor inside the instrument, which

synchronizes its speed with that of the alternator.

• This motor turns a drag cup, and the drag cup positions the needle on
the face of the instrument.

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Oil-Pressure Indicators
• Oil-pressure indicators can be mechanically operated or electrically
powered.

• A mechanically operated gauge uses an oil-pressure line from the

engine to the instrument to operate a bourdon tube and gear segment
to position the indicator needle.

• The oil line should have a restrictor at the engine to prevent rapid oil
loss if the line should break.
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• Some aircraft use a light oil in the line between the gauge and the engine so
that there will be no delay in oil pressure indication due to cold engine oil
being in the line.

• Electric oil pressure sensors use a pressure sensor on the engine, which varies
in resistance as the pressure changes.

• As this pressure signal is generated, the pressure is indicated by one of the

electrical indicating methods previously discussed.

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Oil-Temperature Indicators
• Oil-temperature indicators can be electrical or mechanical.
• To operate electrically, a resistance probe is placed in the oil line
where the oil enters the engine.
• The oil temperature is derived by the change in probe resistance due
to the temperature change.
• Another method used to measure oil temperature is with a volatile
liquid in a sealed sensor bulb and capillary tube.
• In this system a sensor bulb is placed in the oil line at the inlet to the
engine.

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• The temperature of the oil causes the volatile liquid to vaporize and
increase the pressure in the capillary tube.

• The instrument is permanently attached to the other end of the tube,

and the change in gas pressure causes a bourdon tube to move and
indicate the oil temperature on the face of the instrument.

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Exhaust-Gas Temperature
• Reciprocating-engine and turbine-engine exhaust-gas-temperature systems are
used to monitor the performance of the engines and make flight and maintenance
adjustments.
• These systems operate by placing thermocouples in the stream of exhaust gases
exiting the engine.
• The thermocouples generate a current, which drives the indicator.
• The amount of current is usually very low and is amplified or adjusted in order to
drive the indicator display.

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• For a reciprocating engine, one probe may be used for the engine or a probe may
be mounted near the exhaust of each cylinder.

• If multiple probes are used, a selector switch on the instrument is used to allow
selection of the cylinder being monitored.

• In some displays all cylinder temperatures are displayed at the same time in the
form of a vertical light bar, with the length of each bar corresponding to the
exhaust temperature of one cylinder.

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Simplified schematic drawing of a turbine-engine exhaust gas system.

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• In turbine-engine installations, the system uses several probes in parallel, as shown
in previous figure.

• This ensures an average reading of the temperature, and the indication does not
change substantially if one probe should fail.

• The exhaust gas temperature is a primary instrument for monitoring turbine engine
operation.

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Engine-Pressure Ratio
• Engine-pressure ratio (EPR) is used to indicate the amount of thrust being generated by a
turbine engine.

• EPR is determined by measuring the total pressure at the engine inlet and comparing it to
the total pressure of the engine exhaust. These pressures are measured by pitot tube–like
probes pointing into the airflow.

• The total pressure of the exhaust stream divided by the total pressure of the inlet stream
gives the EPR.

• These pressures are normally transmitted electrically to the indicating system, where they
are compared electronically and the proper value is displayed on the instrument.

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Manifold-Pressure Indicator
• The manifold-pressure gauge measures the sidewall pressure in a reciprocating-
engine intake manifold downstream of the carburetor throttle.

• This pressure is a measure of the engine power output. Most smaller aircraft use
direct-indicating instruments for the manifold-pressure gauge.

• The gauge uses a bellows, which expands and contracts with changes in the
manifold pressure. This drives an indicator needle on the face of the instrument.

• The manifold-pressure gauge is an important instrument for reciprocating engines

when determining proper power settings.

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• Without this gauge, the pilot of a turbocharged or supercharged
engine would not be able to tell if he or she were exceeding the
allowed maximum manifold pressure.

• Pilots flying aircraft with constant-speed propellers rely on this gauge

in conjunction with the tachometer to establish the proper powerplant
control settings.

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Cylinder Head Temperature Indicators
• A cylinder head temperature gauge is
used to determine if the engine is
operating at the proper temperature.
• This instrument system uses a
thermocouple under a spark plug or
mounted on the side of the cylinder
head.
• The thermocouple is attached to two
wires, a set of iron and constantan or
Alumel and Chromel, which will
generate a current based on the
Gasket and bayonet sensors for a reciprocating engine temperature of the thermocouple.
thermocouple-operated cylinder head temperature gauge.

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• In its basic form this instrument does not need a power source because the
current generated is sufficient to power the indicating instrument.

• The wires are of a set length and must not be added to or shortened except
with specified lengths of additional wire of the same type.

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Fuel Flowmeter
• Fuel flowmeters are used with fuel
systems to show the amount of fuel in
gallons or pounds consumed per
hour. These indicators are usually
calibrated to read in pounds per
hour. The face of a typical fuel-flow
indicator is shown in Fig.
Face of a typical fuel-flow indicator.

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 • A fuel-flow indicator system consists of a fuel-
flow transmitter located in the fuel line
leading from the tank to the engine and an
indicator located on the instrument panel or on
the flight engineer’s panel. The transmitter
signal may be developed by a single
movable vane mounted in the fuel-flow path in
such a manner that its movement will be
proportional to fuel flow. As fuel flow
increases, the vane must move to allow more
fuel to pass, and this movement is linked to a
synchro unit, which develops the electrical
signal to be sent to the indicator. A schematic
diagram of such a system is shown in Fig.
Electric system for a fuel-flow indicator.

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• An in-line fuel-flow transmitter, such as the one shown in the figure, must have a
bypass valve so that the full flow of the fuel required by the engine can pass even
though the transmitter becomes obstructed. The fuel-flow transmitter used in a
modern jet-airliner fuel system to handle the large volume of fuel required for jet-
engine operation is somewhat more complex than the vane type just described.

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Fuel-flow-indicating system for a jet airliner. (Boeing Commercial Aircraft Co.)
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