Age of Sail

Beginning in the late 1400s, various European nations began sponsoring

voyages across the oceans. This period of time in European history is known
as the Age of Exploration or Age of Discovery. However, the Age of
Encounter might be a better term for it, as the lands Europeans reached
were already settled.
Five European nations were the dominant sponsors of these voyages in
search of new trade routes, merchant opportunities, and - ultimately - lands
to conquer. These were Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the
Netherlands.

Two explorers from Portugal: Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da

Gama were appointed by King John II to find a new trade route to Asia.
In 1488, Dias became the first European explorer to round the Cape of Good
Hope at the southern tip of Africa. His path took him along Africa's west
coast and paved the way for his fellow Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama.
Vasco da Gama followed in Dias’ footsteps and chartered an exploratory trip
past the Cape of Good Hope. Making various stops along the way, including
in what is present day Mozambique and Kenya, da Gama and his men finally
arrived in Calicut, India. He was thus successful in providing a sea route from
Western Europe to Asia.
Exploring on behalf of Spain, were Christopher Columbus, Francisco Vasquez
de Coronado, and Ferdinand Magellan, although not all of these gentlemen
were Spanish born.

Additional information: [Link]

european-explorers

Vasco da Gama
Da Gama sailed from Lisbon in 1497, with a fleet of four vessels—two
medium-sized three-masted sailing ships, each of about 120 tons, named the
“São Gabriel” and the “São Rafael”; a 50-ton caravel, named the “Berrio”;
and a 200-ton storeship. With da Gama’s fleet went three interpreters—two
Arabic speakers and one who spoke several Bantu dialects. The fleet also
carried padrões (stone pillars) to set up as marks of discovery.
Vasco da Gama's first voyage (1497–1499) took him from Portugal to India,
establishing a new sea route. His fleet left in July 1497, stopping at the Cape
Verde Islands before making a wide detour in the Atlantic to avoid Gulf of
Guinea currents. After struggling with adverse winds, they rounded the Cape
of Good Hope in November and reached Mozambique by March 1498, where
da Gama learned of the region’s Arab traders.
With the help of a Gujarati pilot, the fleet crossed the Indian Ocean and
reached Calicut (modern-day Kozhikode, India) on May 20. However, da
Gama’s poor gifts and ignorance of local customs led to failed negotiations
with the Zamorin, Calicut's ruler. Departing at an unfavorable time, he faced
a difficult return journey against monsoon winds. Many crew members died
from scurvy, and one of his ships was burned due to manpower shortages.
After stops in Mozambique and Malindi, the fleet rounded the Cape again in
March 1499.
The voyage took a heavy toll—only 55 of the original 170 crew survived. Da
Gama returned to Lisbon in September 1499, receiving honors from King
Manuel I, including a noble title, a pension, and estates.

You can find additional information about Vasco da Gama’s second and third
voyages at: [Link]
second-voyage

Pedro Álvares Cabral

Pedro Álvares Cabral was a Portuguese navigator renowned for being the
first European to land in Brazil. Born into nobility in Portugal, Cabral was
appointed by King Manuel I to lead an expedition to India in 1500, following
Vasco da Gama's pioneering route. Commanding a fleet of 13 ships, Cabral
set sail on March 9, 1500. To avoid the becalmed waters of the Gulf of
Guinea, he took a more westerly course across the Atlantic, which
unexpectedly brought him to the coast of present-day Brazil on April 22,
1500. There, he claimed the land for Portugal, naming it "Terra de Vera Cruz"
(Land of the True Cross). After a brief stay, Cabral continued his voyage to
India, establishing trade relations and paving the way for future Portuguese
influence in the region. His discovery of Brazil significantly expanded
Portugal's colonial empire, leading to the establishment of a vast and
enduring Portuguese presence in South America.

Additional information: [Link]

Cabral

Christopher Columbus
 Christopher Columbus was a navigator who explored the Americas
under the flag of Spain.
 Some people think of him as the "discoverer" of America, but this is
not strictly true.
 His voyages across the Atlantic paved the way for European
colonization and exploitation of the Americas.

Columbus sailed in search of a route to Cathay (China) and India to bring

back gold and spices that were highly sought in Europe. His
patrons, Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Spain, hoped that his success would
bring them greater status.

Columbus made four transatlantic voyages: 1492–93, 1493–96, 1498–1500,

and 1502–04. He traveled primarily to the Caribbean, including
the Bahamas, Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Jamaica, and in his latter two
voyages traveled to the coasts of eastern Central America and northern
South America.

Additional information: [Link]

Columbus

Ferdinand Magellan
In 1520 Ferdinand Magellan discovered the channel linking
the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, between the mainland tip of South
America and Tierra del Fuego island. Named after him, the Strait of
Magellan was an important sailing-ship route before the building of
the Panama Canal in 1914 offered a significantly shorter Atlantic-Pacific
passage.

Ferdinand Magellan is best known for being an explorer for Portugal, and
later Spain, who discovered the Strait of Magellan while leading the first
expedition to successfully circumnavigate the globe. He died en route
and Juan Sebastián del Cano completed it. The circumnavigation confirmed
the idea that the world was round rather than flat.

Additional information: [Link]

Magellan

Francis Drake
Sir Francis Drake is best known for circumnavigating Earth (1577–80),
preying on Spanish ships along the way. Later he was credited for his
defense of England by raiding Spain’s harbour at Cádiz in 1587 and
(according to many sources) by disrupting the Spanish Armada in the English
Channel with fire ships in 1588.

In addition to circumnavigating the world, Sir Francis Drake is known for

making several voyages to the West Indies as a slave trader. He later
served Queen Elizabeth I as a privateer and naval officer charged with
striking against Spain’s possessions. He also served as the mayor
of Plymouth, England.

Additional information: [Link]

Abel Tasman
Abel Tasman’s voyage of 1642–43 was a significant step in the European
exploration of the Pacific and the southern hemisphere. Tasked with
investigating the unknown regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, Tasman
set sail from Batavia with two ships, reaching Mauritius before heading south
and east. On November 24, 1642, he discovered and named Van Diemen’s
Land (now Tasmania) but missed Bass Strait, incorrectly assuming it was
part of the mainland.
Continuing eastward, he reached the South Island of New Zealand on
December 13, where his crew had a tense encounter with the Māori at what
is now Golden Bay. Believing he had found part of a vast southern continent,
he named the land Staten Landt. Tasman then sailed northeast, discovering
Tonga on January 21, 1643, and Fiji on February 6 before returning to
Batavia via New Guinea. His voyage proved that Australia was separated
from the mythical southern continent, although he never sighted its east
coast.

Additional information: [Link]

James Cook
James Cook was a British naval captain, navigator, and explorer who sailed
the seaways and coasts of Canada and conducted three expeditions to the
Pacific Ocean (1768–71, 1772–75, and 1776–79), ranging from the Antarctic
ice fields to the Bering Strait and from the coasts of North America to
Australia and New Zealand.

The Endeavour voyage led by James Cook included scientists, and the wealth
of scientifically collected material from the voyage was unique. The
expedition established the useful principle of sending scientists on naval
voyages—e.g., Charles Darwin in the Beagle—and stimulated interest not
only in new lands but in many other scientific subjects.
Additional information: [Link]
Cook#ref1515

Vitus Bering
Vitus Bering was a Danish navigator in Russian service whose explorations
helped establish Russia’s presence in North America. In 1728, under Tsar
Peter the Great’s orders, he led an expedition to determine whether Asia and
North America were connected by land. Sailing through the Bering Strait but
hindered by poor weather, he concluded that the two continents were
separate.
Later, during Empress Anna’s reign, he led the Great Northern Expedition
(1733–43), which mapped Siberia’s Arctic coast and sought new lands. In
1741, Bering and Aleksey Chirikov sailed from Kamchatka, with Chirikov
discovering the Aleutian Islands and Bering reaching Alaska’s southwestern
coast. Suffering from scurvy, Bering’s crew was stranded on Bering Island,
where he died in December 1741. Despite hardships, his expedition opened
the way for Russian fur trading in Alaska and the Aleutians.
Additional information: [Link]

Maritime zones
Maritime zones are drawn using what the LOSC calls “baselines.” Unlike
inland waters, coastal waters rise and fall in tides. Rather than having
moving maritime boundaries, the baseline is fixed to begin at the low-water
line along the coast. The low-water line is derived from the coastal State’s
own charts.
These zones are measured using nautical miles, a measurement based on
the circumference of the Earth.2 One nautical mile equals roughly 1.15 miles
on land.
As seen in the graphic below, the LOSC divides the ocean into six different
zones:

Internal Waters
Internal waters are all the waters that fall landward of the baseline, such as
lakes, rivers, and tidewaters. States have the same sovereign jurisdiction
over internal waters as they do over other territory. There is no right of
innocent passage through internal waters.

Territorial Sea
Everything from the baseline to a limit not exceeding twelve miles is
considered the State’s territorial sea. Territorial seas are the most
straightforward zone. Much like internal waters, coastal States have
sovereignty and jurisdiction over the territorial sea. These rights extend not
only on the surface but also to the seabed and subsoil, as well as vertically to
airspace. The vast majority of States have established territorial seas at the
12 nautical mile limit, but a handful have established shorter thresholds.
 Contiguous Zone
States may also establish a contiguous zone from the outer edge of the
territorial seas to a maximum of 24 nautical miles from the baseline. This
zone exists to bolster a State’s law enforcement capacity and prevent
criminals from fleeing the territorial sea. Within the contiguous zone, a State
has the right to both prevent and punish infringement of fiscal, immigration,
sanitary, and customs laws within its territory and territorial sea. Unlike the
territorial sea, the contiguous zone only gives jurisdiction to a State on the
ocean’s surface and floor.3 It does not provide air and space rights.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

Unlike other zones whose existence derived from earlier international law,
the EEZ was a creation of the LOSC. States may claim an EEZ that extends
200 nautical miles from the baseline. In this zone, a coastal State has the
exclusive right to exploit or conserve any resources found within the water,
on the sea floor, or under the sea floor’s subsoil. These resources encompass
both living resources, such as fish, and non-living resources, such as oil and
natural gas.4 States also have exclusive rights to engage in offshore energy
generation from the waves, currents, and wind within their EEZ. Article 56
also allows States to establish and use artificial islands, installations and
structures, conduct marine scientific research, and protect and preserve the
marine environment through Marine Protected Areas. 5 Article 58 declares
that Articles 88 to 115 of the Convention relating to high seas rights apply to
the EEZ “in so far as they are not incompatible with this Part.

Continental Shelf
The continental shelf is a natural seaward extension of a land boundary. This
seaward extension is geologically formed as the seabed slopes away from
the coast, typically consisting of a gradual slope (the continental shelf
proper), followed by a steep slope (the continental slope), and then a more
gradual slope leading to the deep seabed floor. These three areas,
collectively known as the continental margin, are rich in natural resources,
including oil, natural gas and certain minerals.
The LOSC allows a State to conduct economic activities for a distance of 200
nautical miles from the baseline, or the continental margin where it extends
beyond 200 nautical miles. There are two methods to determine the extent
of a continental margin under the LOSC. The first method is by measuring
geological features using what is called the Gardiner formula. By measuring
the thickness of sedimentary rocks, the edge of the shelf is drawn where
sedimentary rocks become less than 1 percent of the thickness of the
soil. 7 The second method is to use fixed distances in what is called the
Hedberg formula. This method allows States to draw its boundary 60 miles
from the foot of the shelf’s slope. 8 This expanded continental shelf cannot,
however, exceed (i) 350 miles from the baseline or (ii) 100 miles from the
2,500-meter isobath.9
 2. The Oceans
Q1. What is an ocean?
An ocean is a continuous body of salt water that is contained in an enormous
basin on Earth’s surface. The major oceans and their marginal seas cover
nearly 71 percent of Earth’s surface, with an average depth of 3,688 metres
(12,100 feet).
The five major oceans are the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic,
and Southern oceans.
By volume, up to 98 percent of the water on Earth exists as oceanic water
and associated sea ice. Earth is unique in the solar system because its mean
temperature allows water to exist on Earth in all three phases—solid, liquid,
and gaseous—with the liquid phase predominating.
Retrieved from: [Link]

Q2. How many oceans are there in the world?

While there is only one global ocean, the vast body of water that covers 71
percent of the Earth is geographically divided into distinct named regions.
The boundaries between these regions have evolved over time for a variety
of historical, cultural, geographical, and scientific reasons.
Historically, there are four named oceans: the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and
Arctic. However, most countries - including the United States - now recognize
the Southern (Antarctic) as the fifth ocean. The Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian
are the most commonly known.
The Southern Ocean is the 'newest' named ocean. It is recognized by
the U.S. Board on Geographic Names as the body of water extending from
the coast of Antarctica to the line of latitude at 60 degrees South. The
boundaries of this ocean were proposed to the International Hydrographic
Organization in 2000. However, not all countries agree on the proposed
boundaries, so this has yet to be ratified by members of the IHO.
Retrieved from: [Link]

Q3. Size comparison of the oceans.

See slides 4 and 5 in the presentation.

Q4. Why Is The Atlantic Ocean Widening While The Pacific Ocean Is
Shrinking?
See YouTube video here: [Link]

Q5. Relative distribution of the oceans.

Earth possesses one “world ocean.” However, those conducting oceanic
research generally recognize the existence of five major oceans:
the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic oceans. Arbitrary
boundaries separate these bodies of water, but they are largely defined by
the continents that frame them. In the Southern Hemisphere, however,
60° S latitude, which corresponds to the approximate position of
the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, separates the Southern Ocean from the
southern portions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans. Many
subdivisions can be made to distinguish the limits of seas and gulfs that
have historical, political, and sometimes ecological significance. However,
water properties, ocean currents, and biological populations are not
constrained by these boundaries. Indeed, many researchers do not recognize
them either.
See slides from 6 to 11 in the presentation.
Retrieved from: [Link]

Q6. The deepest places in each of the world's oceans.

See slide 12 in the presentation.
Upon assessing the nominal location for each of the five-deeps there are
some oceans that were treated slightly different from others. For example,
there is no doubt that Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench is the deepest
point in the Pacific Ocean (Gardner et al., 2014; van Haren et al., 2017) and
that the Puerto Rico Trench is the deepest place in the Atlantic Ocean.
However, in the latter the exact depth of the deepest point, known as
‘Milwaukee Deep’ (Lyman, 1954), required reassessment. The deepest point
in the Southern Ocean, the South Sandwich Trench, offered two locations:
the deepest point in the trench, or ‘Meteor Deep’ (Allaby, 2009), which is
north of the 60° S boundary and a currently unnamed deep which is the
deepest point of the trench south of the 60° S boundary. In the Arctic Ocean,
the Molloy Hole, in the Fram Strait (Bourke et al., 1987; Thiede et al.,
1990; Klenke and Schenke, 2002, Klenke and Schenke, 2006a; Jakobsson et
al., 2012) was investigated whereas online reports of the Litke Deep being
the deepest point were discarded as data analysis revealed that the Litke
Deep only achieves a maximum water depth of ~4000 m. The deepest point
in the Indian Ocean is contentious as it is often reported as being either the
Java Trench at 9° S to 11° S or the Diamantina Fracture Zone further south
at 33° S to 35° S.
Retrieved from:
[Link]
65

Q7. Which hemisphere contains more water?

The distribution of oceanic surface area with 5° increments of latitude shows
that the distribution of land and water on Earth’s surface is markedly
different in the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The Southern
Hemisphere may be called the water hemisphere, while the Northern
Hemisphere is the land hemisphere. This is especially true in
the temperate latitudes.
This asymmetry of land and water distribution between the Northern and
Southern hemispheres makes the two hemispheres behave very differently
in response to the annual variation in solar radiation received by Earth. The
Southern Hemisphere shows only a small change in surface temperature
from summer to winter at temperate latitudes. This variation is controlled
primarily by the ocean’s response to seasonal changes in heating and
cooling. The Northern Hemisphere has one change in surface temperature
controlled by its oceanic area and another controlled by its land area. In the
temperate latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the land is much warmer
than the oceanic area in summer and much colder in winter. This situation
creates large-scale seasonal changes in atmospheric
circulation and climate in the Northern Hemisphere that are not found in the
Southern Hemisphere.
Retrieved from: [Link]

Q8. Hydrologic cycle

Earth is unique in the solar system because of its distance from the Sun and
its period of rotation. These combine to subject Earth to a solar
radiation level that maintains the planet at a mean surface temperature of
about 14–15 °C (57.2–59 °F). Mean surface temperature varies little over
annual and night-day cycles. This mean temperature allows water to exist on
Earth in all three of its phases—solid, liquid, and gaseous. No other planet in
the solar system has this feature. The liquid phase predominates on Earth.
By volume, 97.957 percent of the water on the planet exists as oceanic
water and associated sea ice. The gaseous phase and droplet water in
the atmosphere constitute 0.001 percent. Fresh water
in lakes and streams makes up 0.036 percent, while groundwater is 10 times
more abundant at 0.365 percent. Glaciers and ice caps constitute 1.641
percent of Earth’s total water volume.
Each of the above is considered to be a reservoir of water. Water
continuously circulates between these reservoirs in what is called
the hydrologic cycle, which is driven by energy from the
Sun. Evaporation, precipitation, movement of the atmosphere, and the
downhill flow of river water, glaciers, and groundwater keep water in motion
between the reservoirs and maintain the hydrologic cycle.
See slide 14 in the presentation.
Retrieved from: [Link]

Q9. Bottom Relief

Compared to land, relatively little is known of relief below the surface of the
sea. The development of an effective echo sounder in 1922 greatly simplified
the determination of bottom depth. Later, a recording echo sounder was
developed to permit the continuous tracing of a bottom profile. The latest
sounding systems employ an array of echosounders aboard a single vessel,
which continuously sound a wide swath of ocean floor. This has contributed
immensely to our knowledge of bottom relief. Beginning in the 1980’s,
satellite altimeters were launched, providing a global 'view' of the ocean's
bathymetry. By these means, many undersea mountain ranges, volcanoes,
rift valleys, and other features have been discovered.
Along most of the coasts of the continents, the bottom slopes gradually to a
depth of about 130 meters or somewhat less, where it falls away more
rapidly to greater depths. This continental shelf averages about 65
kilometers in width, but varies from the shoreline to about 1400 kilometers,
the widest area being off the Siberian Arctic coast. A similar shelf extending
outward from an island or group of islands is called an island shelf. At the
outer edge of the shelf, the steeper slope of 2° to 4° is called the
continental slope, or the island slope, according to whether it surrounds
a continent or a group of islands. The shelf itself is not uniform, but has
numerous hills, ridges, terraces, and canyons, the largest being comparable
in size to the Grand Canyon.
The relief of the ocean floor is comparable to that of land. Both have steep,
rugged mountains, deep canyons, rolling hills, plains, etc. Most of the ocean
floor is considered to be made up of a number of more-or-less circular or oval
depressions called basins, surrounded by walls (sills) of lesser depth.
A wide variety of submarine features have been identified and defined. Some
of these are shown in slide N15. The term deep may be used for a very deep
part of the ocean, generally that part deeper than 6,000 meters.
The average depth of water in the oceans is 3795 meters (2,075 fathoms), as
compared to an average height of land above the sea of about 840 meters.
The greatest known depth is 11,524 meters, in the Marianas Trench in the
Pacific. The highest known land is Mount Everest, 8,840 meters. About 23
percent of the ocean is shallower than 3,000 meters, about 76 percent is
between 3,000 and 6,000 meters, and a little more than 1 percent is deeper
than 6,000 meters.
Bowditch, Nathaniel, 1773-1838. (1984). American practical navigator : an
epitome of navigation. [Washington, D.C.?] :Defense Mapping Agency
Hydrographic/Topographic Center : For sale by authorized Sales Agents of
the Defense Mapping Agency, Office of Distribution Services, pp. 598-599.
Retrieved from: [Link]
key=16693975/SFH00000/Bowditch_Vol_1.pdf&type=view

Q10. Continental Margin

Continental shelf, a broad, relatively shallow submarine terrace
of continental crust forming the edge of a continental landmass.
The geology of continental shelves is often similar to that of
the adjacent exposed portion of the continent, and most shelves have a
gently rolling topography called ridge and swale. Continental shelves make
up about 8 percent of the entire area covered by oceans.
A continental shelf typically extends from the coast to depths of 100–200
metres (330–660 feet). It is gently inclined seaward at an average slope of
about 0.1°. In nearly all instances, it ends at its seaward edge with an abrupt
drop called the shelf break. Below this lies the continental slope, a much
steeper zone that usually merges with a section of the ocean floor called
the continental rise at a depth of roughly 4,000 to 5,000 metres (13,000 to
16,500 feet). A few continental margins—such as those off the
Mediterranean coast of France and at Porcupine Bank, off the western coast
of Ireland—do not have a sharply defined break in slope but rather maintain
a generally convex shape to the seafloor.
Continental slope, seaward border of the continental shelf. The
world’s combined continental slope has a total length of approximately
300,000 km (200,000 miles) and descends at an average angle in excess of
4° from the shelf break at the edge of the continental shelf to the beginning
of the ocean basins at depths of 100 to 3,200 metres (330 to 10,500 feet).
The transition from continental crust to oceanic crust usually occurs below
the continental slope. About 8.5 percent of the ocean floor is covered by the
continental slope-rise system.
Continental rise, a major depositional regime in oceans made up of thick
sequences of continental material that accumulate between the continental
slope and the abyssal plain. Continental rises form as a result of three
sedimentary processes: mass wasting, the deposition from contour currents,
and the vertical settling of clastic and biogenic particles.
Continental margin, the submarine edge of the continental
crust distinguished by relatively light and isostatically high-floating material
in comparison with the adjacent oceanic crust. It is the name for
the collective area that encompasses the continental shelf, continental slope,
and continental rise. The characteristics of the various continental margins
are shaped by a number of factors. Chief among these are tectonics,
fluctuations of sea level, the size of the rivers that empty onto a margin as
determined by the amount of sediment they carry, and the energy conditions
or strength of the ocean waves and currents along the margin.

Density
Density is mass per unit of volume. The appropriate SI unit is kilograms per
cubic meter. The density of seawater depends upon salinity, temperature,
and pressure. At constant temperature and pressure, density varies with
salinity. A temperature of 0°C and atmospheric pressure are considered
standard for density determination. The effects of thermal expansion and
compressibility are used to determine the density at other temperatures and
pressures. Slight density changes at the surface generally do not affect the
draft or trim of a ship, though a noticeable change may occur as a ship
travels from salt to fresh water. Density changes at a particular subsurface
pressure will affect the buoyancy of submarines because they are ballasted
to be neutrally buoyant. For oceanographers, density is important because of
its relationship to ocean currents.
Open ocean values of density range from about 1,021 kilograms per cubic
meter at the surface to about 1,070 kilograms per cubic meter at 10,000
meters depth. As a matter of convenience, it is usual in oceanography to
define a density anomaly which is equal to the density minus 1,000
kilograms per cubic meter. Thus, when an oceanographer speaks of
seawater with a density of 25 kilograms per cubic meter, the actual density
is 1,025 kilograms per cubic meter.
The greatest changes in density of seawater occur at the surface, where the
water is subject to influences not present at depths. At the surface, density is
decreased by precipitation, run-off from land, melting ice, or heating. When
the surface water becomes less dense, it tends to float on top of the denser
water below. There is little tendency for the water to mix, and so the
condition is one of stability. The density of surface water is increased by
evaporation, formation of sea ice, and by cooling. If the surface water
becomes more dense than that below, convection currents cause vertical
mixing. The denser surface water sinks and mixes with less dense water
below. The resultant layer of water is of intermediate density. This process
continues until the density of the mixed layer becomes less than that of the
water below. The convective circulation established as part of this process
can create very deep uniform mixed layers.
Retrieved from: Bowditch, p. 595.

Effect of Density on Draught

The Mariner’s Handbook. P. 91. (You will learn these formulas in Ship
Stability.) You just need to know how the draught of a vessel changes from
saltwater to freshwater navigation and vice versa.

Salinity
The Mariner’s Handbook. P. 91.
***
One of the most well known qualities of the ocean is that it is salty. The two
most common elements in sea water, after oxygen and hydrogen, are
sodium and chloride. Sodium and chloride combine to form what we know as
table salt.
Sea water salinity is expressed as a ratio of salt (in grams) to liter of water, It
is written parts per thousand (ppt). In sea water, there is typically close to 35
grams of dissolved salts in each liter (35ppt), but ranges between 33-37
grams per liter (33ppt - 37ppt).
But as in weather, where there are areas of high and low pressure, the ocean
has areas of high and low salinity. Of the five ocean basins, the Atlantic
Ocean is the saltiest. On average, there is a distinct decrease in salinity near
the equator and at both poles, although for different reasons.
Near the equator, the tropics receive the most rain on a consistent basis. As
a result, the fresh rain water falling into the ocean decreases the salinity of
the surface water in that region. Rain decreases further from the equator,
and with less rain and more sunshine, evaporation increases. Evaporation of
water vapor from the ocean to the atmosphere leaves behind the salt,
resulting in higher salinity. Toward the poles, fresh water from melting ice
decreases the surface salinity once again.
The saltiest locations in the ocean are the regions where evaporation is
highest or in large bodies of water where there is no outlet into the ocean.
The saltiest ocean water is in the Red Sea and in the Persian Gulf region
(around 40ppt) due to very high evaporation and little fresh water inflow.

The amount of salt in sea water determines the temperature at which sea
water freezes because adding salt to water lowers the freezing temperature.
Water with a salinity of 17ppt freezes at about 30°F (-1°C) and 35ppt water
freezes at about 28.5°F (-2°C). However, sea ice itself contains very little
salt, about a tenth of the amount of salt that sea water has. This is because
ice will not incorporate salt into its crystal structure. Newly formed sea ice
can trap pockets of salty water, called brine, making the ice salty at first.
Eventually, though, the brine gets pushed out of the ice’s crystal structure.
Therefore, older sea ice is actually drinkable.
The density of sea water, however, is influenced by both its temperature and
salinity. Density increases as salinity increases and as temperature
decreases. Because salt lowers the freezing point of water, sea water does
not start forming the lattice structure that lowers its density until it is much
colder than fresh water. Therefore, when sea ice does form and loses salt,
the salt is concentrated in the water beneath it, and the salinity (and
therefore the density) of the underlying water continues to increase well
after an area is iced over.

The "Average Salinity" map (right) shows the lowest salinity being in the
polar regions. However, this image depicts surface salinity only. Polar
surface salinity is lower than in the tropical regions due to ice melting each
summer. However, winter ice formation increases the salinity below the
ocean surface, causing the water below the ice to sink. That sinking motion
governs the flow of the ocean's deep-water currents. (We will discuss these
currents the next week)
Retrieved from: [Link]
***
Salinity is a measure of the amount of dissolved solid salts material in the
water. Salts are compounds like sodium chloride and potassium nitrate. The
units to express salinity have changed over the years. Up to the 1980s,
salinity was measured by titration and expressed as parts per thousand (ppt
or ‰). After 1980, the practical salinity unit (psu), measured by electrical
conductivity, was used. Starting in 2010 the thermodynamic equation of
seawater with units of grams per kilogram of solution began to be employed.
A sample of seawater with a salinity of 35.00 ‰, would have a psu of 35.00,
and in the newest system would have a value of 35.2 g/kg.
Salinity generally varies between about 33 and 37 psu. However, when the
water has been diluted, as near the mouth of a river or after a heavy rainfall,
the salinity is somewhat less; and in areas of excessive evaporation, the
salinity may be as high as 40 psu. In certain confined bodies of water,
notably the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and the Dead Sea in Asia Minor, the
salinity is several times this maximum.
Retrieved from Bowditch, p. 593-594.

Pressure
The appropriate international standard (SI) unit for pressure in oceanography
is 1 kPa = 103 Pa where Pa is a Pascal and is equal to one Newton per
square meter. A more commonly used unit is a bar, which is nearly equal to
1 atmosphere (atmospheric pressure is measured with a barometer and may
be read as hectopascals). Water pressure is expressed in terms of decibars,
10 of these being equal to 1 bar. One decibar is equal to nearly 11 /2 pounds
per square inch. This unit is convenient because it is very nearly the
pressure exerted by 1 meter of water. Thus, the pressure in decibars is
approximately the same as the depth in meters, the unit of depth.

Although virtually all of the physical properties of seawater are affected to a

measurable extent by pressure, the effect is not as great as those of salinity
and temperature. Pressure is of particular importance to submarines, directly
because of the stress it induces on the hull and structures, and indirectly
because of its effect upon buoyancy.
Retrieved from Bowditch, p. 595.

Temperature
Temperature in the ocean varies widely, both horizontally and with depth.
Maximum values of about 32°C are encountered at the surface in the Persian
Gulf in summer, and the lowest possible values of about –2°C (the usual
minimum freezing point of seawater) occur in polar regions.
Except in the polar regions, the vertical distribution of temperature in the
sea in the majority of the seas show a decrease of temperature with depth.
Since colder water is denser (assuming the same salinity), it sinks below
warmer water. This results in a temperature distribution just opposite to that
of the Earth’s crust, where temperature increases with depth below the
surface of the ground.
In the sea there is usually a mixed layer of isothermal water below the
surface, where the temperature is the same as that of the surface. This layer
is caused by two physical processes: wind mixing and convective
overturning. As surface water cools it becomes more dense. This layer is best
developed in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, and in seas like the Baltic and
Sea of Japan during the winter, where it may extend to the bottom of the
ocean. In the Tropics, the wind-mixed layer may exist to a depth of 125
meters, and may exist throughout the year. Below this layer is a zone of
rapid temperature decrease, called the thermocline. At a depth greater than
400 meters, the temperature is below 15°C. In the deeper layers, fed by
cooled waters that have sunk from the surface in the Arctic and Antarctic,
temperatures as low as –2°C exist.
Retrieved from Bowditch, p. 594.

Tides and Sea levels

Tides are the periodic motion of the waters of the sea due to changes in the
attractive forces of the Moon and Sun upon the rotating Earth. Tides can
either help or hinder a mariner. A high tide may provide enough depth to
clear a bar, while a low tide may prevent entering or leaving a harbor. Tidal
current may help progress or hinder it, may set the ship toward dangers or
away from them. By understanding tides and making intelligent use of
predictions published, the navigator can plan an expeditious and safe
passage through tidal waters.

Tides and Tidal Currents

The rise and fall of tide is accompanied by horizontal movement of the water
called tidal current. It is necessary to distinguish clearly between tide and
tidal current, for the relation between them is complex and variable. For the
sake of clarity mariners have adopted the following definitions: Tide is the
vertical rise and fall of the water, and tidal current is the horizontal flow. The
tide rises and falls, the tidal current floods and ebbs. The navigator is
concerned with the amount and time of the tide, as it affects access to
shallow ports. The navigator is concerned with the time, speed, and direction
of the tidal current, as it will affect his ship’s position, speed, and course.
Tides are superimposed on nontidal rising and falling water levels, caused by
weather, seismic events, or other natural forces. Similarly, tidal currents are
superimposed upon non-tidal currents such as normal river flows, floods, and
freshets

Waves
Ocean waves, the most easily observed phenomenon at sea, are probably
the least understood by the average seaman. More than any other single
factor, ocean waves are likely to cause a navigator to change course or
speed to avoid damage to ship and cargo. Wind-generated ocean waves
have been measured at more than 100 feet high, and tsunamis, caused by
earthquakes, far higher. Mariners with knowledge of basic facts concerning
waves are able to use them to their advantage, avoid hazardous conditions,
and operate with a minimum of danger if such conditions cannot be avoided.
Waves on the surface of the sea are caused principally by wind, but other
factors, such as submarine earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the tide,
also cause waves. If a breeze of less than 2 knots starts to blow across
smooth water, small wavelets called ripples (capillary waves) form almost
instantaneously. When the breeze dies, the ripples disappear as suddenly as
they formed, the level surface being restored by surface tension of the
water. If the wind speed exceeds 2 knots, more stable gravity waves
gradually form, and progress with the wind. While the generating wind
blows, the resulting waves may be referred to as sea. When the wind stops
or changes direction, waves that continue on without relation to local winds
are called swell.