Material Science Aspects of SS304, P91, P22, and P12 in Power Plants

1. SS304 (Stainless Steel 304)

a. Name and Designation: SS304 is designated as an austenitic stainless steel, part of the 18/8 family (18%
Chromium, 8% Nickel). The number "304" is part of the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) numbering
system, where 300-series steels are all austenitic stainless steels. The "04" in 304 differentiates it from other
steels like 302 or 316 based on its precise composition—particularly its lower carbon content and absence
of molybdenum. The designation helps engineers and metallurgists select steels based on corrosion
resistance, strength, and fabricability. Its UNS designation is S30400.

b. Composition: - Chromium (Cr): 18-20% - Nickel (Ni): 8-10.5% - Carbon (C): Max 0.08% - Manganese (Mn),
Silicon (Si), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S) – in minor quantities

c. Grain Structure and Microscopic Aspect: - Fully austenitic structure - Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) grain
structure - Non-magnetic in annealed condition - Fine and equiaxed grains if properly heat-treated - Good
resistance to grain boundary precipitation due to low carbon

d. Mechanical and Special Features: - High ductility and impact resistance, especially useful in pressure-
bearing components - Excellent corrosion resistance enables long-term use in moist and chemically
aggressive environments like feedwater systems - Non-hardenable by heat treatment, but strain hardening
via cold working can increase strength for structural applications - Moderate tensile strength (~515 MPa),
but excellent elongation and toughness allow it to absorb thermal shocks in water-contacting sections

e. Use in Power Plant (Application Justification): Its corrosion resistance and ductility make SS304 ideal
for condensers, feedwater lines, and low-pressure zones where exposure to wet steam or water could
otherwise lead to rusting or failure. Its inability to withstand high temperatures, however, limits it to non-
heat-critical areas.

2. P91 (Grade 91 Alloy Steel)

a. Name and Designation: P91 (ASTM A335 Grade P91) is a 9Cr-1Mo-VNb steel developed for high-
temperature service. The "P" refers to its classification under the ASTM A335 specification for seamless
ferritic alloy-steel pipe. The number "91" is derived from its composition: approximately 9% Chromium and
1% Molybdenum, but also includes Vanadium and Niobium for precipitation strengthening. The designation
"91" indicates its place as an advanced modification over previous grades like P9, with significantly
enhanced creep and oxidation resistance suitable for modern ultra-supercritical thermal power plant
environments.

b. Composition: - Chromium (Cr): 8-9.5% - Molybdenum (Mo): 0.85-1.05% - Vanadium (V): 0.18-0.25% -
Niobium (Nb): 0.06-0.1% - Carbon (C): 0.08-0.12%

1
c. Grain Structure and Microscopic Aspect: - Tempered martensite with some retained ferrite - Body-
Centered Cubic (BCC) - Fine carbide precipitates (MX and M23C6 types) - High dislocation density and creep
resistance

d. Mechanical and Special Features: - Very high creep strength allows use in components under
continuous high stress and temperature (~600–650°C) - Excellent high-temperature tensile strength and low
thermal expansion - Martensitic matrix contributes to fatigue resistance under cyclic thermal loads -
Designed to maintain mechanical integrity over 100,000 hours of service - Yield strength (~400 MPa at room
temp), with excellent creep rupture resistance

e. Use in Power Plant (Application Justification): P91 is widely used in superheaters, reheaters, and
steam lines where temperatures and pressures are highest. Its resistance to thermal fatigue and creep
deformation ensures long service life and structural safety in ultra-supercritical environments.

3. P22 (Grade 22 Low Alloy Steel)

a. Name and Designation: ASTM A335 Grade P22 is a 2.25Cr-1Mo low alloy ferritic steel. The "P" refers to
the ASTM standard specification for seamless pipes. The number "22" is a part of the series that includes
grades such as P1, P5, P9, P11, and P12, and signifies its relative position in terms of chromium and
molybdenum content. The designation reflects its suitability for elevated temperature service with
moderate corrosion resistance and strength properties, especially in fossil-fuel power generation.

b. Composition: - Chromium (Cr): 1.90–2.60% - Molybdenum (Mo): 0.87–1.13% - Carbon (C): 0.05–0.15%

c. Grain Structure and Microscopic Aspect: - Ferrite and pearlite microstructure - BCC structure with
tempered bainite possible after heat treatment - Lower hardness and strength compared to P91

d. Mechanical and Special Features: - Moderate creep and tensile strength make it suitable for mid-
temperature zones (up to ~540°C) - Good thermal conductivity helps manage temperature gradients in
thicker sections - Lower expansion rates reduce thermal stress buildup - Tensile strength around 415–585
MPa - Easier to fabricate and weld than P91

e. Use in Power Plant (Application Justification): P22 is mainly used in subcritical plant components such
as headers and piping where temperature and pressure are moderate. Its good weldability and thermal
conductivity provide operational stability with lower material costs in mid-range applications.

4. P12 (Grade 12 Low Alloy Steel)

a. Name and Designation: ASTM A335 Grade P12 is a low alloy steel with 1% Cr and 0.5% Mo. The "P"
indicates that it is a piping-grade material per ASTM A335 standards. The "12" signifies its placement in the
early family of Cr-Mo steels and implies a lower chromium content compared to grades like P22 or P91.
Originally developed for moderate temperature services, its designation reflects a balance between cost,
formability, and thermal resistance suitable for legacy power generation systems.

2
b. Composition: - Chromium (Cr): 0.80–1.25% - Molybdenum (Mo): 0.44–0.65% - Carbon (C): 0.05–0.15%

c. Grain Structure and Microscopic Aspect: - Ferrite and pearlite phases - Less refined grains compared to
higher Cr steels - BCC structure with carbide precipitates in grain boundaries

d. Mechanical and Special Features: - Lower creep and tensile strength, operating limit around 510°C -
Simple microstructure allows for easy shaping, welding, and machining - Moderate thermal expansion and
good thermal fatigue resistance for low-temp zones - Tensile strength ~415 MPa; lower than P22 and P91
but stable at designated conditions

e. Use in Power Plant (Application Justification): P12 is suitable for economizer tubes, low-temperature
steam lines, and heat exchangers. Its affordability, decent corrosion resistance, and dimensional stability
under lower thermal stress make it a cost-effective option in non-critical pressure parts.

General Note: In thermal power plants, the selection of materials is driven primarily by mechanical
properties under thermal and pressure stress. P91 offers the highest mechanical integrity for supercritical
zones, while P22 and P12 provide economic options for mid and low-temperature areas. SS304, though not
designed for high heat, excels in corrosion resistance for water-contacting components.