COMPREHENSIVE NOTES: CHAPTER 1 - SOME

BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

FORMULAS, STOICHIOMETRY, AND MOLE FRACTIONS - DETAILED STUDY GUIDE

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Definition: Chemistry is the science of molecules and their transformations. It studies the
preparation, properties, structure and reactions of material substances [1] [2] .
Historical Development: Ancient India had remarkable contributions to chemistry, called
"Rasayan Shastra," including metallurgy, medicine, and manufacturing processes. Notable
scientists included Acharya Kanda (600 BCE) who proposed the atomic theory with "Paramānu"
concept, and Nagarjuna who worked with mercury compounds [1] [2] .

SECTION 2: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space [1] [2] [3] .
States of Matter:
Solid: Definite volume and shape, particles closely packed
Liquid: Definite volume, indefinite shape, particles can move around
Gas: Indefinite volume and shape, particles far apart with easy movement [1] [2]
Classification of Matter:
Pure Substances: Elements and Compounds (fixed composition)
Mixtures: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous (variable composition) [1] [2]

SECTION 3: ESSENTIAL FORMULAS AND CALCULATIONS

Basic Physical Properties

Density Formula:
$ \rho = \frac{m}{V} $
Where: ρ = density, m = mass, V = volume
SI unit: kg/m³ or g/cm³ [1] [2]
Temperature Conversions:
°F = (9/5)°C + 32
 K = °C + 273.15 [1] [2]
Scientific Notation:
Format: N × 10ⁿ where 1 ≤ N < 10 [1] [2]

Atomic and Molecular Mass

Key Constants:
1 amu = 1.66056 × 10⁻²⁴ g
Avogadro's Number (Nₐ) = 6.022 × 10²³ [1] [2]
Molecular Mass Calculation:
Sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule [1] [3]
Example: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
Molecular mass = 6(12.011) + 12(1.008) + 6(16.00) = 180.162 u [3]

SECTION 4: MOLE CONCEPT

Definition: One mole contains exactly 6.02214076 × 10²³ elementary entities [1] [2] .
Key Relationships:
Number of moles (n) = mass (g) / molar mass (g/mol)
Number of particles = n × Nₐ
Molar mass in g/mol = Atomic/molecular mass in u [1] [2]

SECTION 5: EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS

Percentage Composition:
$ Mass% of element = \frac{mass of element in compound}{molar mass of compound} \times
100 $ [1] [3]
Empirical Formula Determination Steps:
1. Convert % composition to grams (assume 100g sample)
2. Convert grams to moles using atomic masses
3. Divide by smallest number of moles
4. If not whole numbers, multiply by appropriate factor
5. Write empirical formula [1] [2]
Molecular Formula:
$ n = \frac{Molar mass}{Empirical formula mass} $
Molecular formula = (Empirical formula) × n [1] [3]
Detailed Example:
Compound: 4.07% H, 24.27% C, 71.65% Cl, Molar mass = 98.96 g
Step 1: H = 4.07g, C = 24.27g, Cl = 71.65g
Step 2: Moles of H = 4.07/1.008 = 4.04
Moles of C = 24.27/12.01 = 2.02
Moles of Cl = 71.65/35.45 = 2.02
Step 3: Ratio = 4.04:2.02:2.02 = [Link]
Step 4: Empirical formula = CH₂Cl
Step 5: n = 98.96/49.48 = 2, Molecular formula = C₂H₄Cl₂ [1] [3]

SECTION 6: STOICHIOMETRY - COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS

Definition: Stoichiometry deals with the calculation of masses and volumes of reactants and
products in chemical reactions [1] [2] .
Balanced Chemical Equation Information:
CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) → CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g)
Coefficients represent molar ratios ([Link])
Can derive mole-to-mole, mass-to-mass, and volume-to-volume relationships [1] [2]
Limiting Reagent:
Reactant that gets consumed first
Limits the amount of product formed
Other reactants are in excess [1] [2]
Example Problem:
N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) → 2NH₃(g)
Given: 50.0 kg N₂ and 10.0 kg H₂
Solution:
Moles of N₂ = 50,000g / 28.0 g/mol = 1786 mol
Moles of H₂ = 10,000g / 2.016 g/mol = 4960 mol
For 1786 mol N₂, need: 1786 × 3 = 5358 mol H₂
Available H₂ = 4960 mol < 5358 mol required
Therefore: H₂ is limiting reagent
NH₃ produced = (4960 mol H₂) × (2 mol NH₃/3 mol H₂) = 3307 mol NH₃
Mass of NH₃ = 3307 mol × 17.0 g/mol = 56.2 kg [1] [3]

SECTION 7: SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS

Comprehensive flowchart showing relationships and interconversions between different solution
concentration units

1. Mass Percentage (w/w%)

$ Mass% = \frac{Mass of solute}{Mass of solution} \times 100 $ [1] [2] [3]
Example: 2g solute in 18g water
Mass% = (2g/20g) × 100 = 10% [3]

2. Mole Fraction (χ)

$ \chi_A = \frac{n_A}{n_A + n_B} $
$ \chi_B = \frac{n_B}{n_A + n_B} $
Where χₐ + χᵦ = 1 [1] [2] [3]
Alternative Formula:
$ \chi_A = \frac{W_A/M_A}{(W_A/M_A) + (W_B/M_B)} $
Where W = mass, M = molar mass [2]

3. Molarity (M)
$ M = \frac{Number of moles of solute}{Volume of solution (L)} $ [1] [2] [3]
Dilution Formula: M₁V₁ = M₂V₂ [1] [2]
Example: 4g NaOH in 250 mL solution
 Moles of NaOH = 4g / 40 g/mol = 0.1 mol
Molarity = 0.1 mol / 0.25 L = 0.4 M [3]

4. Molality (m)
$ m = \frac{Number of moles of solute}{Mass of solvent (kg)} $ [1] [2] [3]
Note: Molality is temperature independent [1] [2]
Interconversion Example:
3 M NaCl solution, density = 1.25 g/mL
Mass of NaCl in 1L = 3 × 58.5 = 175.5 g
Mass of 1L solution = 1000 × 1.25 = 1250 g
Mass of water = 1250 - 175.5 = 1074.5 g
Molality = 3 mol / 1.0745 kg = 2.79 m [1] [3]

SECTION 8: DETAILED SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 1: Molecular Mass of Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
Molecular mass = (6 × 12.011) + (12 × 1.008) + (6 × 16.00) = 180.162 u [3]
Example 2: Iron Oxide Empirical Formula
69.9% Fe, 30.1% O
Moles of Fe = 69.9/55.85 = 1.25 mol
Moles of O = 30.1/16.00 = 1.88 mol
Ratio = 1.25:1.88 = 2:3
Empirical formula = Fe₂O₃ [3]
Example 3: Average Atomic Mass
Chlorine isotopes: ³⁵Cl (75.77%, 34.9689 u), ³⁷Cl (24.23%, 36.9659 u)
Average = (75.77/100 × 34.9689) + (24.23/100 × 36.9659) = 35.45 u [3]

SECTION 9: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Significant Figure Rules:
1. All non-zero digits are significant
2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant
3. Leading zeros are NOT significant
4. Trailing zeros after decimal point are significant
5. In scientific notation, all digits are significant [1] [2]
Precision vs Accuracy:
Precision: Closeness of measurements to each other
 Accuracy: Agreement with true value [1] [2]

SECTION 10: LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

1. Law of Conservation of Mass: Matter cannot be created or destroyed [1] [2]
2. Law of Definite Proportions: Compounds contain same proportion of elements by weight [1]
[2]

3. Law of Multiple Proportions: Masses of one element combining with fixed mass of another
are in simple ratios [1] [2]
4. Gay-Lussac's Law: Gases combine in simple volume ratios [1] [2]
5. Avogadro's Law: Equal volumes of gases contain equal number of molecules at same T and
P [1] [2]

SECTION 11: QUICK REFERENCE FORMULAS

Calculation Type Formula Units

Density ρ = m/V kg/m³, g/cm³

Moles n = mass/molar_mass mol

Particles N = n × Nₐ count

Mass% (mass element/total mass) × 100 %

Mole fraction χₐ = n ₐ/(n ₐ + n ᵦ) unitless

Molarity M = moles/volume(L) mol/L

Molality m = moles/kg solvent mol/kg

SECTION 12: COMMON MISTAKES AND TIPS

Common Mistakes:
Confusing molecular mass (u) with molar mass (g/mol)
Wrong units in calculations
Unbalanced chemical equations
Mixing up molarity and molality
Incorrect significant figure handling [1] [2] [3]
Pro Tips:
Always verify units in final answers
Balance equations before stoichiometry calculations
Use dimensional analysis for conversions
Check that mole fractions sum to 1
Practice significant figure rules regularly [1] [2] [3]
This comprehensive guide covers all essential formulas, concepts, and problem-solving
strategies for Chapter 1, providing detailed explanations with step-by-step solutions for
maximum understanding and application.
⁂

1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. chapter_1_some_basic_concepts_of_chemistry.pdf