*Infant Mortality : In demographic term, infants are defined as those children in the first year of life

who have not yet completed age one. The study of infant mortality gains importance, specially
because mortality during the first year of life is invariably high for all countries, irrespective of
whether the overall levels of mortality are high or low. Some of the important causes of infant
mortality may be- # The cause can be related to birth, which includes lack of medical facilities,
incompetence of nurses attending on the child birth, immature birth, etc. # The cause can also be
related to outside factors, like, exposure to cold or heat; illiteracy of parents resulting in the
negligence of children; ill-nourishment, nutrition, etc. # The mothers can be ignorant and may not
realise the need of after medical care after the birth of baby. # In some families, where the number
of children, particularly of the same sex, may be quite high and an additional child may not be
much cared.

*Maternal Mortality: Maternal mortality may be defined as the death of a woman while pregnant
or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy. Maternal mortality is bound to be high in societies
where– # the women are illiterate; # the orthodox nature of the people; # the health of the women
is not very much cared for; # interval between the birth of two children is rather less; # there are
no medical facilities; # pregnant women cannot be provided with nutritive food; # the system of
child marriage prevails.

2.3.3 Migration The concept of migration has always attracted various academic disciplines as the
concept is loaded with variability, diversity and identity related issues. Migration is a universal
phenomenon. It is the movement of people between regions or countries which implies the
process of changing one’s place of residence and permanently living in a region or country.
According to Demographic Dictionary of United Nations, “Migration is such an event in which
people move from one geographical area to another geographical area. When people leave their
place of residence and go to live permanently in another area then this is called migration.”
Migration may be permanent or temporary with the intention of returning to the place of origin in
the future. Again, The United Nations Multilingual Demographic Dictionary defines migration as
follows:- “Migration is a form of geographical mobility or spatial mobility between one
geographical unit and another, generally involving a change in residence from the place of origin or
place of departure to the place of destination or place of arrivals. Such migration is called
permanent migration and should be distinguished from other forms of movement which do not
involve a permanent change of residence.” Geographical distance is generally taken as a rough
measure of whether the migrant crosses into another region or not.

2.3.4 Basic concepts of migration -*Immigration and Emigration: When people permanently move
from one country to another country the process involves two concepts- Immigration and
Emigration. For the country from which the people move away, it will be regarded as Emigration,
and for the country which people will move into it will be regarded as the process of Immigration.
For example, If people move away from Bangladesh to India, for Bangladesh it is termed as
Emigration and for India it will be regarded as the process ofImmigration. The process of
Immigration and Emigration is applicable in case of international migration which implies the
family planning and fertility regulations can be properly understood and appreciated when
productive behaviour of individual is psychologically [Link], in the field of mortality,
utilisation pattern of health-care services can be better understood when the individual concerned
is psychologically talked or analysed. Not only this, but movements from rural to urban areas can
also be studied by understanding the motivation and psychology of person behind such migration.
But, demography is different from psychology in many aspects. Psychology is primarily
individualistic in nature and this is not a collective activity. On the contrary, a demographer deals
with people as a whole. The psychologists read inner meaning of the persons to be studied but a
demographic analysis is concerned more with outer behaviour than inner-behaviour.

UNIT2: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN DEMOGRAPHY UNIT STRUCTURE. The concepts of birth rate,
death rate and migration can be regarded as the three main components for studying and
observing the trends of population growth. The study of birth rate, that is fertility, is basically a
phenomenon related with physiology or health science but the concept of fertility has been loaded
with various socio-economic conditions which have been regarded as important aspects in dealing
with demography or sociology. Like that, death rate or mortality is also playing an important role in
determining the trends of population growth of a country. In addition to the concepts of fertility
and mortality, migration also plays an important role in studying and observing the growth of
population. When Migrants come to a new country or a place for permanent settlement and when
people Migrate or move away towards new country or new place, both have an overall impact on
the trends of population. This is why the process of birth-fertility, the process of deathmortality
and the process of moving of people-migration always takes an important position in the academic
disciplines of demography and sociology. These processes are loaded with various socio-economic
implications which have been affecting the overall social structure of a place or a country. Let us
discuss these concepts in details in the following sub sections.

2.3.1 Fertility Fertility can be referred to as the average number of children that would be born to
a woman, if she experiences the current fertility pattern in her lifetime. According to Thomson and
Lewis, “Fertility is generally used to indicate the actual reproductive performance of a woman or
groups of women.” Human fertility is an important tool for biological reproduction which is
essential and necessary for maintaining the human society. The growth rate of population of the
world depends entirely on fertility. The process of human fertility is the process through which a
society represents itself. Thus, in population dynamics, fertility can be regarded as an essential
positive force, through which population expands. Some of the important factors which effect
fertility are -*Biological Factors: In fertility, biological factors play a very important role. Bilological
factors like age and sex are very important in affecting fertility. A woman become biologically
facund with the onset mensturation and her capacity to bear children comes to an end with the
onset of menopause. The reproductive period of a woman is between 30 - 35 years. But it is not
uniform. It depends on the health, food habits, climate, etc. As health conditions go on improving
with that facundity also increases. There is no such limit in the case of man.*Physiological Factors:
The natural fertility of every population is affected by the extent of primary and secondary sterility
among women or couples. The primary sterility means the couples who have never had a child
aspects*Distribution of Population Demography analyses the distribution of population i.e. how
people are distributed, how their numbers and proportions change, how political, social and
economic causes bring changes in the distribution of population. Migration and Urbanization also
play an important role in the distribution of population.*Theoretical models There are vast
theoretical aspects of population studies which include the various theories of population
propounded by sociologists, biologists, demographers and economists*Practical Uses The practical
aspect of the subject includes various methods of measuring population such as census methods,
age pyramids, population projections etc. Population census is one of the most reliable sources of
data on size, growth and composition of population. The major issues in population studies from
practical aspects are :- # Growth of population # Changes in composition of population and #
Demographic processes as fertility, nuptiality , mortality and migration . In this regards, census of a
human society is most important. Therefore, a subject like demography has its practical aspects in
academic and non-academic fields.*Population Policy Population policy occupies a very important
position in the subjects covered under the discipline of demography. It denotes policies for
population control, reproductive health, maternal hygiene and nutrition, various policies according
to population, child care and child health etc. These policies are very important for implementing
and maintaining various socio-economic measures for the better development of the society.

1.3.3 Relation With Other Social Sciences

*Demography and Sociology : The emergence of Sociology and its successful establishment as an
academic discipline owed a lot to Demography. Demography is primarily concerned with collecting
materials about biological, economic and social problems. Sociology believes that man is a social
animal. Similarly, demography also accepts human being as a unit of society and a group in which
man is born and in which he dies. Both demography and sociology study the problems related to
birth, death, marriage, divorce etc. Demography collects figures (statistics) about these problems
and the topics are considered important subject matter by the sociologists. Kingsley Davis points
out the following areas of the study which require a combined knowledge of demography and
sociology: fertility, population changes, structure of labor force, Social organization, family with
regard to demographic behavior, and internal and external migration. Similarly, Broom and Selznick
regard demography as one of the nine elements of sociological analysis such as social organization,
socialization, social stratification, primary groups, associations, collective behavior, culture, ecology
and population. Along with the above similarities between them, there are also some differences
between the two disciplines. The issues of marriage, migration, family are studied in both the
disciplines. But Sociology studies and analyses these issues as a part of social institution and finds
out its effect on society and social life,wheheas demography, while analysing these issues, takes
into account their contribution to the structure of population and its size. Thus sociology deals with
social relationships while demography studies social relations with respect to population dynamics.
Like that, Sociology mainly focuses on the qualitative aspect of social relations whereas,
Demography mainly focuses on the quantitative aspect of population using various methods of
measurement.
unit. Moreover, in large census operations, information are collected also from migrant individuals,
homeless persons for whom enumeration happens during the night-time, at their places of rest or
sleep. *Before starting the census operations, the Census Commission of India prepares schedules,
house listed the households in each area, provides training to the enumerators, etc.*Everyone can
have access to the census data. The recorded census data, after the completion of the enumeration
process, are published for circulation. Official website of the census commission makes census data
easily accessible to all. Due to such openness and transparency census has become an important
reliable source of demographic information.

[Link] Limitations of the census Let us discuss some of the limitations of the census.*The first and
foremost problem associated with the Census is that is not a continuous process and is usually
conducted after an interval of 10 years. Census so conducted hence requires an ad hoc work. It also
requires training of the census staff after every 10 years before the actual census operations can be
carried on. All such aspects hence can make census operations mammoth affairs and require much
time and effort and cannot be conducted without a sound prior preparation.*Secondly, the
enumerators so trained or being appointed for the purpose often interpret the terms used in the
schedules as per their own wish, even when the Census Commission supplies prior guidelines to
them.*Again in the census operations, the enumerators are required to go from door to door to
collect information. This work is not only time consuming but also monotonous. It is because of
such reasons that some enumerators, at some point in time, may shirk the work and can become
dishonest in filling up the schedules often through some cooked up figures which they actually
have created by sitting at home.*Last, but not the least, many persons, from whom the information
are to be collected, show reluctance in providing the correct information because of the fear that it
may be used for some other purposes. This happens particularly when the members of the
household are illiterate or the enumerator is not able to convince the former that the entire
information is going to be kept secret by law and will be safe.

4.3.2 Registration Data Sources of Registration data in India: Let us now learn about the two
important sources of registration data. Registration data in the country are usually collected from
two main sources: # Vital Registration : Vital registration records information about the vital
statistics like birth, death, marriage and divorces etc of a person concerned. It is the obligation of
every individual of the country to record such information to the office or the authorities of his/her
region concerned. Vital registration usually involves filling up of a proforma, by the registered
candidates which require filling up of the information’s about the life happenings like marriage,
births, or the information’s about deceased, divorced. # Population registration:Population
registration is the source of collecting registered information under registration data. This serves as
an important source of collecting and compiling demographic information. Though in many of the
countries of Europe and Asia population registration is mandatory for every citizen residing in those
countries, India is yet to make a distinct mark to accommodate information’s about every citizen of
the country through population registration
correct information about age when people are illiterate and are ignorant about their own age. The
age structure of any population is most commonly studied with the help of a simple mathematical
measure like the percentage distribution and an equally simple measure like the age-pyramid.

* Marital Status: Unlike sex and age, marital status is not a biologically ascribed characteristic, but
is an acquired characteristic. It is a very permanent characteristic of the study of a population. The
United Nations has recommended that individuals should be classified according to their marital
status into five categories - Single (Never married); married but not legally separated; widowed and
not married; divorced and not remarried; and married but legally separated

* Education: The study of the educational attainment of males and females is important for the
study of population characteristics. Education is an important variable affecting demographic
behaviour concerning marriage, birth rate, death rate and migration. It has been seen in various
research studies that a negative relationship has been established between the educational level of
women and their fertility; because when education of women increase the fertlity decreases. The
age at marriage of females is also influenced by the level of educational attainment, since educated
women postpone their marriages. Even infant mortality is found to be affected by the educational
status of the mother.

* Religion: Religion is an important variable of population study, because it influences various types
of demographic behaviour. Societal customs and practices regarding marriage are influenced by
religion. Hence, it becomes necessary to study age at marriage, the practice of widow remarriage,
divorce, etc. in relation to religious affiliations. For the study mortality also, it is necessary to know
the religious affiliations of the people. Since, the diet of the people and their customs and practices
and hygiene are all generally influenced by religion. Even migration, internal as well as
international, is greatly influenced by religion.

3.5 MORTALITY: MEANING MEASURES Mortality usually plays a significant role in population
dynamics and it has played a dominant role in the declining population rate. The study of mortality
is useful for evaluating current demographic conditions. It also helps to determine the possible
amount of changes in mortality conditions of future. The implementation and evaluation of public
health programmers are made by assessing the mortality rate highly because the entire public
administration depends on the study of mortality. The statistical data on death is also required for
insurance companies in their policy formulation process. Thus the study of mortality deals with the
effect of deaths on population. According to UN and WHO death is a “Permanent disappearance of
all evidence of life at any time after birth has taken place”. The span between birth and death is
what we call as a life. Live birth is the complete expulsion from mother, or a product of conception
with an evidence of life such as breathing, blood circulation and movement of muscles. So any
death after live birth is considered as mortality. Abortion and still birth are not at all referred to as
death because expulsion of fetus before it became capable of independent existence outside its
mother is known as abortion whereas when a birth does not have any of the characteristics of life it
is known as still birth. Both are fetal death and can be induced or natural. From the very prehistoric
society itself human kind has been concerned with trying to control diseases and prevent death.
3.3. NATURE OF DEMOGRAPHIC DATA Demography,as we have already learned in the previous
units, is the study of population. It studies the trends associated with population for e.g. change in
the size of the populations, births and death factors, migration, composition (relative proportion of
woman and men and different age groups).Demography can be broadly classified into two type:
Formal Demography which is largely quantitative andSocial Demography, which focuses on
economic, social and political aspects of population. All demographic studies, be it counting, census
or the survey involves the collection of the data on the number of people living in a specified
region. The demographic data is very important for planning and implementation of policies
specially, for economic development and general public welfare. Country level and state level data
like number of deaths are made up by adding individual deaths. The death rate itself is a social
phenomenon. Population studies or demography cover mainly three aspects, namely, size,
composition and distribution of population. * Size : Size refers to the number of people living in a
given place. It also deals with the changes taking place in the numbers and the consequences of
such changes on the size of the population. This can be accurately found out by clearly defining the
terms ‘place’, ‘person’ and ‘time’. In any population studies, the concern is not only in finding out
how many people live in a particular area at a given point of time but also to make a comparative
study, on whether the number is more than what it was and what will be the possible trend in the
future. These data are necessary to provide social utility services like education, medical aid,
legislators, planners and policy makers. Demographers should not only look at the changes in the
size of the population but also find out the causes of such changes. These causes can be due to the
increase in the birth rate and death rate or on account of migration or due to lack of availability of
medical facilities, etc. * Composition: Composition refers to the measurable characteristics of the
people who form a given population. These characteristics are related to demographic processess.
Age and sex are the most widely used characteristics of population study. The age structure of a
population reveals the proportion of population in different age [Link] sex structure refers to
the number of females per thousand males in a population. In the words of Thompson and Lewis,
the relationship between the composition of a population and its mortality, fertility and net
migration is a reciprocal one; i.e., composition affects the demographic processes and these
processes in turn effect the composition by determining the age and sex structure of a population.
* Distribution: Distribution is concerned with such matters on the distribution of people and what
is the nature of changes in distribution. In a population study, one would be interested to find out
the world population living in advanced urban industrial areas and pre-urban industrial areas and
the way in which changes are taking place in each category. Distribution of population in urban,
semi-urban and rural areas is an important aspect of this component of population studies. The
changes in population distribution are caused by the cumulative effect of differences in the birth,
death and net migration. Now, while talking about the nature of demographic data, one must know
that the characteristics or attributes, which are included in the study of the structure and
characteristics of the population, are sometimes classified into two groups. They are - ascribed
characteristics and achieved characteristics. Ascribed characteristics may be considered to be
biologically or culturally assigned and the individual has very little control over them. These include
such characteristics as age, sex, race and mother tongue. Such characteristics as nationality,
in dirty, unhealthy and unventilated houses. All these social and economic factors are cumulatively
responsible for high birth rate and high death rate in this society resulting in a static equilibrium in
population growth. * Early expanding stage: In the second stage, the economy is supposed to enter
the phase of economic development in which all sectors of the economy-agriculture, industry,
trade, transport, service sector start developing. The productivity in the sector increases. Medical,
health and education services also largely improve, which has been reflected in the fact that the
death rate comes down considerably, but birth rate almost remains stable. This leads to a situation
of ‘population explosion’ in the economy. This stage has been referred to as early expanding stage
when population grows very rapidly due to declining death rate and birth rate remains almost
unchanged. * Late expanding stage: In this stage, a declining birth rate and low death ratelead to a
situation of low population growth. Along with economic development of a country, structural
changes in each country begin to take place. In this stage, large numbers of industries are
established in the country. A major part of population begins to reside in urban areas. People now
startto treat children as a liability more than an asset. In this stage, couple prefer to have a car or
any luxurious items than a child in order to maintain a high standard of living in the society.
Consequently, birth rate begins to fall and death rate remains low. Thus population growth grows
to a phase of diminishing growth. * Low stationary stage : In the fourth stage, the birth rate comes
down and tends to be equal with the death rate, resulting in a situation of decline in the population
growth. The leading growth sectors like agriculture, industry and trade expands and pass through
technological transformation. The levels of education, income, savings, investment and
employment rises. Most of the advanced in the world are passing through the stage of low
stationary growth of population development. * Declining stage : In this last stage of population
growth, the economy reaches a phase when continuously declining birth rate is accompanied by
the lowest death rate. This trend leads to a declining stage of population growth. This stage in any
advanced country is an imaginary phenomenon.

6.4.1 Critical Evaluation of Demographic Transition Theory of Population The theory of

demographic transition is widely accepted as an important theoretical orientation towards the
study of population growth. However, various questions has been raised by various critics
regarding the practical implication of this theory. According to some eminent scholars this theory is
only precises the empirical experiences which is common to sociologists but criticized by others.
Again, this theory cannot be used for making predictions and it fully ignores the role of migration.
Even this theory does not explain the causes of changes in birth and death rates. So, considering
these understanding the various criticisms of Demographic Transition theory have been discussed
below-*Critics have pointed out that the sequences of the demographic trends or different stages
of population growth as discussed in the theory is not uniform in nature. For instance, in some East
and South European countries like Spain in particular, the fertility rates declined even when
mortality rates were high. But in case of countries like Unites States of America, the growth rate of
population was higher than in the second and third stage mentioned in the theory of demographic
transition.*The theory has failedto give a fundamental explanation of decline in birth rates in
Western countries. In fact, the causes of decline in birth rate are so diverse that they differ from
country to country.*The critics have forwarded the idea that the theory of demographic transition
to evil practices in the society. That is why, they have supported the use of various contraceptive
means as it helps to satisfy the sexual urge and at the same time to avoid the child birth. So far as
food supply is concerned, the Neo- Malthusians believed that it can be increased by using modern

UNIT 6: THEORIES OF POPULATION II

6.3 OPTIMUM THEORY OF POPULATION By scrutinizing the different aspects of Malthusian Theory
of Population, which mainly revolves around the idea of ‘maximum population’, modern population
theorists have laid the foundation of a new theory of population referred to as the Optimum
Theory of Population. This theory indicates that due to law of diminishing returns and limited
substitutability of factors of production, as population grows the long run tendency of per capita
income is decline. Instead of the idea of Maximum population, the modern theorists have accepted
the idea of optimum population, optimum population of a country is that which helps in maximum
production with help of the available natural resources. In other words, it is a point in which the
per capita income is maximum or production is also maximum. The theory of Optimum population
is part of economic theory of production and it is mainly based on certain assumptions. These
assumptions are- * The natural resources of a country are given at a point of time but they can
change over time. * There is no change in the techniques of production. * The stock of capital
remains constant. * The habits and tastes of the people do not change. * The ratio of working
population to total population remains constant even with the growth of population. * Working
hours of labour do not change. * Modes of business organisations are constant. If the population of
a country is below the optimum point, then the country is said to be under populated. In this
situation, the number of the people is insufficient to take the fullest possible advantage of the
natural and capital resources of the country. On the contrary, when the population crosses the
optimum point, the country will have a state of over population. In this situation there will be too
many people in the land which implies that the resources will not be sufficient to provide gainful
employment to all. Per capita income of the country will diminish and standard of living will fall.
War, famine will be a constant outcome of this type of situation. It may be noted that optimum
population is not a fixed number but it is movable in nature. Optimum population changes with the
change in resources or II technology. Given the amount of capital and natural resources and the
state of technology, there will be a definite size of population at which output per capita is
maximum. But, the quantity of capital and natural resources and the state of technology are
subjected to change. When there are many changes in them, the optimum level of population will
also be changed.

6.3.1 Critical Evaluation of the Optimum Theory of Population The Optimum theory of population is
not free from criticism. Some of the Scholars criticize this theory on various grounds. Gottlieb(1945)
opined that it is impossible to compute an optimum number that maximizes social welfare. On the
other hand, Myrdal also mentioned that optimum theory is connected with Neo- Malthusianism
and demand for a smaller population on policy grounds. Generally, Critics wished to say that
although the theory of optimum population is definitely an improvement over the theory
propounded by Malthus, yet the critics have pointed out certain defects associated with the
in the thinking of scholars and different points of views expressed by them with respect to
population dynamics within the socio-economic-political context In ancient times, several thinkers
have studied regarding the size of the population and their studiesrevolved around the question of
the desirable size of the population. Their studies either favoured a large and huge population or
favoured a comparatively lower population. The basis for such concern regarding a desirable size of
population was mainly for practical reasons, covering military, political, social and economic issues
and usually Demography led to the formulation of a specific public policy. But these thoughts were
never solidified into proper theoretical orientations on population studies. Population theories,
with a proper theoretical orientation, emerged in the eighteenth century when the work of Thomas
Malthus was published. The unit will focus upon the shift of theoretical orientation from
Malthusian to Neo- Malthusian approach.

5.3.1 Malthusian Theory of Population Published in the year 1798, the book Essay on the Principle
of Population can be termed as the founding base for different theoretical orientations towards the
population dynamics.. Thus, Malthus’s theory of population is based on the following there
postulates-*Food is essential for man’s existence.*The passion between sexes is essential and it
will nearly remain in its present state *The law of diminishing returns operates in agriculture. From
the postulates, Malthus deduced the conclusion that "the power of population is indefinitely
greater than the power in earth to produce subsistence (food) for men.” And if the increasing
population is not able to check, by the preventive checks or measures, it will bring vice or misery
for humankind. The Malthusian theory has been discussed in details in the following points

*To control over-population resulting from the imbalance between population and food supply,
Malthus suggested positive checks and preventive checks. # Positive check: Disasters like famine,
earthquake, vice, misery, disease, flood etc take life of many people and death rate increases in the
society. These are positive checks which are taken by nature in order to maintain balance between
population and food supply. # Preventive check: Preventive checks are man –made provisions to
control the birth rate. Moral restraint and various birth control measures like raising the age of
marriage, celibacy etc are some of the preventive checks mentioned by Malthus. But he was
against any artificial birth control measures as it violates his strong religious believe. That is why he
referred to these artificial birth control measures as ‘Conjugal fraud’. According to Malthus,
preventive checks are always in operation in a civilized society. He wrote, “In proportion as
mankind rises above the conditions of the beasts, population is restrained by the fear of want,
rather than by want itself.”

5.3.2 Critical Evaluation of the Malthusian Theory The doctrine of Malthus has been discussed and
scrutinised by different scholars and as a result many severe criticisms have appeared against the
theory. He has been severely criticised for his pessimistic outlook towards the study of population
growth. According to Briggs and Jordan, “Malthus is to judge as a prophet rather than a historian
and as aneconomist rather than a statistician.” Some of the criticisms against the theory have been
mentioned in the following points-*In advanced countries, Malthusian theory has not proved to be
true. In developed or advanced countries where due to the application of modern science and