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Social Justice Value Added Material

The document is a comprehensive guide for Civil Services Examination 2025 candidates, focusing on Social Justice and vulnerable sections in India. It covers key challenges faced by various groups including women, children, and minorities, along with relevant government schemes and policies. The material is designed to aid in effective preparation for GS Paper 2 by providing insights, case studies, and analytical tools for understanding social justice issues.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

87 views94 pages

Social Justice Value Added Material

Uploaded by

paritosh punj

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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SOCIAL JUSTICE Student Notes:

Contents
UNIT 1: VULNERABLE SECTIONS AND WELFARE SCHEMES FOR THEIR PROTECTION .................... 4
1. Vulnerable Sections in India ....................................................................................................... 5
1.1. Women in India ................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.1. Key Challenges Faced by Women in India .................................................................... 7
1.1.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Women's Protection and Empowerment ....... 8
1.2. Children ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.2.1. Key Challenges Faced by Children .............................................................................. 11
1.2.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Children ........................................................ 13
1.3. Young Adults (Youth) ......................................................................................................... 14
1.3.1. Key Challenges Faced by Young Adults ...................................................................... 15
1.3.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Youth ............................................................ 16
1.4. Elderly (Senior Citizens) in India ........................................................................................ 17
1.4.1. Key Challenges Faced by the Elderly .......................................................................... 18
1.4.2. Government Schemes and Policies for the Elderly .................................................... 19
1.5. Scheduled Castes (SCs) in India ......................................................................................... 20
1.5.1. Key Challenges Faced by Scheduled Castes ............................................................... 20
1.5.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Scheduled Castes ......................................... 23
1.6. Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India .......................................................................................... 24
1.6.1. Key Challenges Faced by Scheduled Tribes ................................................................ 25
1.6.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Protection and Welfare of STs ...................... 28
1.7. Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in India ........................................................................... 29
1.7.1. Key Challenges Faced by OBCs ................................................................................... 30
1.7.2. Government Schemes and Policies for OBC Protection and Welfare ........................ 31
1.8. Minorities in India ............................................................................................................. 32
1.8.1. Key Challenges Faced by Minorities ........................................................................... 32
1.8.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Minority Welfare .......................................... 33
1.9. Differently-Abled Persons (PwDs) in India ........................................................................ 34
1.9.1. Key Challenges Faced by Differently-Abled Persons .................................................. 34
1.9.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Their Protection ........................................... 36
1.10. Transgender Persons in India .......................................................................................... 37
1.10.1. Key Challenges Faced by Transgender Persons in India ........................................... 37
1.10.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Protection and Welfare .............................. 39
1.11. Assessment of Government Schemes & Policies for Vulnerable Sections ...................... 41
UNIT 2: ISSUES RELATING TO DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF SOCIAL SECTOR ............ 45
1. Part A: Health ........................................................................................................................... 46
1.1. Healthcare Infrastructure in India ..................................................................................... 47
1.1.1. India’s Health Profile: Key Indicators.......................................................................... 47
1.2. Challenges to India's Healthcare Ecosystem ..................................................................... 48
1.3. Addressing Challenges to Issues in Healthcare ................................................................. 49
1.4. Burden of Disease & Key Health Issues in India ................................................................ 50
1.4.1. Communicable Diseases ............................................................................................ 50
1.4.2. Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) ........................................................................ 50
1.4.3. Mental Healthcare ..................................................................................................... 51
1.4.3.1. Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 ............................................................................................. 53
1.5. Key Government Schemes & Missions on Healthcare ...................................................... 54
1.5.1. National Health Policy (2017) .................................................................................... 55
1.5.2. Ayushman Bharat ....................................................................................................... 55
1.5.3. National Medical Commission (NMC) ........................................................................ 57
1.5.4. Human Resources for Health (HRH) ........................................................................... 58

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1.5.5. Pandemic Preparedness and the 'One Health' Approach .......................................... 59 Student Notes:
1.6. The Future of Health in India ............................................................................................ 60
1.6.1. Digital Health Ecosystem ............................................................................................ 60
1.6.2. Telemedicine: eSanjeevani ......................................................................................... 63
1.6.3. AI & Robotics in Healthcare ....................................................................................... 63
1.6.4. Medical Tourism ......................................................................................................... 63
2. Part B: Education ...................................................................................................................... 64
2.1. Education System of India ................................................................................................. 65
2.1.1. Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)............................................................... 65
2.1.2. School Education ........................................................................................................ 67
2.1.2.1. Key Challenges in School Education .................................................................................. 67
2.1.2.2. Major Government Initiatives ........................................................................................... 68
2.1.3. Teacher’s Training ....................................................................................................... 70
2.1.4. Higher Education Ecosystem ...................................................................................... 71
2.1.4.1. State of Higher Education .................................................................................................. 72
2.1.4.2. Key Issues in Higher Education .......................................................................................... 72
2.2. Miscellaneous Topics for Education .................................................................................. 75
2.2.1. Internationalization of Higher Education: Foreign Universities in India .................... 75
2.2.2. AI in Education: Personalized Learning and Ethical Challenges ................................. 77
2.2.3. Private Sector in Education ........................................................................................ 79
2.2.4. Vocational Education and Skill Development............................................................. 79
2.2.5. NTA and Exam Paper Leak .......................................................................................... 80
2.2.6. National Education Policy........................................................................................... 81
UNIT 3: POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES IN INDIA ............................................................. 83
1. Poverty in India ........................................................................................................................ 85
2. Hunger and Malnutrition ......................................................................................................... 87
2.1. Link Between Poverty and Hunger .................................................................................... 89
3. Government Response to Eliminate Poverty and Hunger ....................................................... 90
4. Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): Improvements and Challenges.................................. 92

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Preface Student Notes:

Dear Aspirant,
Congratulations on clearing the Prelims stage of the Civil Services Examination 2025. The
journey to Mains demands not only a robust knowledge base but also a nuanced understanding
of interconnected subjects, especially in a crucial area of GS Paper 2 like Social Justice.
We recognize that this critical period can be daunting. With a syllabus including topics that
constantly evolve and are associated with welfare policies, and emerging societal challenges,
you might find yourself grappling with questions like: How do I cover the vast spectrum of
vulnerable sections and the issues they face? How do I effectively analyse current
developments in welfare schemes and social sector to write answers?
It is with a deep appreciation for these challenges that we, the team at VISIONIAS, have
meticulously prepared this Social Justice Value Added Material (VAM) for Mains 2025. This
document is not merely a compilation; it is a strategic guide designed to empower your
preparation for the GS Paper 2.
The Philosophy: Precision and Relevance of Content
The cornerstone of this VAM is a thorough and objective analysis of UPSC Mains questions
from recent years. This rigorous PYQ analysis serves as the guiding principle of picking themes
and topics to discuss in this document, ensuring that every aspect of the document is aligned
with the examination's demands.
How Will This Document Empower Your Mains Preparation?
Our primary objective is to equip you with the comprehensive content and the analytical
acumen necessary to excel in UPSC CSE Mains. This VAM is structured to achieve several key
objectives:

• Comprehensive Coverage of Vulnerable Sections: We have meticulously covered all major

vulnerable sections in India, including Women, Children, Youth, Elderly, SCs, STs, OBCs,
Minorities, Differently-Abled Persons, and Transgender Persons, detailing the unique
challenges they face.
• Integrated Welfare Schemes and Policies: Recognizing the dynamic nature of this subject,
key government schemes, acts, and constitutional safeguards pertinent to the protection
and empowerment of these vulnerable groups are seamlessly integrated throughout the
document, ensuring your preparation is always up-to-date.
• Focus on Analytical data for Themes of Social Justice: This material delves into critical issues
relating to the vital social sectors such as Health and Education, providing data driven
insights into their infrastructure, challenges, and government initiatives.
• One-Stop Solution: This comprehensive document addresses the entirety of the syllabus,
consolidating all necessary topics into a single, accessible resource, thereby saving your
valuable time and effort in navigating multiple sources.
Our Commitment to Your Success
This document is a culmination of dedicated effort aimed at simplifying your preparation and
maximizing your output for Mains 2025. We firmly believe that with a clear strategy and the
right resources, your diligent efforts will translate into commendable success.
Trust this process, utilize this material to its fullest potential, and approach the examination
hall with the confidence that you are thoroughly prepared.
Your Trusted Partner in Success
Vision IAS

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UNIT 1: VULNERABLE SECTIONS AND WELFARE SCHEMES Student Notes:

FOR THEIR PROTECTION

PYQ Analysis and Insights
Unit 1 of Social Justice focuses on Vulnerable Sections and the measures taken for their
welfare. Based on our analysis of Previous Year Questions (PYQs) from 2013 to 2024, we’ve
gathered key insights for Mains 2025. These insights help you understand the types of
questions commonly asked about welfare schemes for vulnerable groups. We’ve categorized
the questions to guide you on how to approach each type, from understanding the schemes to
critically evaluating their impact and policy implications.
We recommend using these insights along with the specially curated VAM content. Together,
they’ll help you write focused and comprehensive answers, boosting your score in GS Paper
2.

Question Type PYQs Insights for Mains 2025

Understanding of the 2017: 'To ensure effective What to focus on:

Scheme(s) implementation of policies
• Understand who the scheme
addressing water, sanitation
targets and why it was
and hygiene needs, the
introduced, focusing on its
• Objectives of identification of beneficiary
macro-level goals such as
welfare schemes. segments is to be synchronized
poverty alleviation,
• Target Groups with the anticipated outcomes'.
education, healthcare, or
(women, SC/ST, Examine the statement in the
social equity.
minorities). context of the WASH scheme.
• Break down the objectives,
• Components and 2017: Does the Rights of
components, and design of
Design of the Persons with Disabilities Act,
the scheme, and assess how it
scheme (funding, 2016 ensure effective aligns with national policies
coverage, mechanism for empowerment aimed at vulnerable groups.
implementation). and inclusion of the intended • Analyze the scheme’s impact
beneficiaries in society? using real-world data, and
Discuss. identify gaps or inefficiencies
2013: The concept of Mid Day in coverage or implementation.
Meal (MDM) scheme is almost a • Discuss potential policy
century old in India. Critically reforms to strengthen the
examine its twin objectives, scheme and improve its
latest mandates, and success. targeting of marginalized
communities.

Critical Evaluation of 2023: "Development and What to focus on:

Welfare Measures welfare schemes for the
• Discuss institutions
vulnerable, by its nature, are
• Effectiveness and responsible for implementing
discriminatory in approach." Do
Impact of schemes. the schemes/ measures (e.g.,
you agree? Give reasons for your
• Challenges (e.g., state-level committees for
answer.
corruption, PMAY). Focus on governance
infrastructure, 2016: Examine the main challenges.
implementation). provisions of the National Child • Focus on implementation
• Sustainability of Policy and throw light on the gaps (e.g., PMJAY hospital
schemes and status of its implementation. reimbursements, corruption in
outcomes. 2014: Do government schemes scheme execution).
for uplifting vulnerable and

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backward communities by • Point out governance failures, Student Notes:
protecting required social bureaucratic inefficiencies,
resources for them, lead to their and poor accountability.
exclusion in establishing Suggest solutions like better
businesses in urban enforcement or streamlining
economies? processes.

Dimensions of Social 2021: Though women in post- What to focus on:

Justice Independent India have excelled
• Analyze how the scheme
in various fields, the social
• Equity in welfare benefits marginalized groups
attitude towards women and
schemes. and show their empowerment
feminist movement has been
• Social Exclusion: through real-life examples or
patriarchal. What interventions
Barriers for case studies.
can help change this milieu?
marginalized • Gender and social exclusion
groups. 2017: Does the Rights of issues should be your focus.
• Gender Justice: Persons with Disabilities Act, Look at whether rural women,
Empowerment of 2016 ensure effective minorities, or Dalits are
women and girls in mechanism for empowerment benefiting equally. Critically
schemes. and inclusion of the intended assess any discrimination
beneficiaries in society? present.
Discuss.

1. Vulnerable Sections in India

Vulnerable sections refer to
groups of people who face higher
risks and disadvantages due to
various socio-economic, cultural,
and environmental factors. These
populations experience systemic
exclusion, marginalization, and
inequitable access to resources,
rights, and opportunities.
Vulnerability is often influenced by
the intersectionality of factors
such as economic status, gender,
caste, disability, age, and
ethnicity. Vulnerable groups
typically lack the power to
influence social, political, and
economic decisions and are
subject to discrimination,
neglect, or abuse.

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Student Notes:
Rationale of Welfare Schemes for Vulnerable Sections
• Constitutional Basis
o The Preamble of the Constitution promotes justice, equality, and dignity.
o Fundamental Rights protect and promote the idea of equality, the right to live with
dignity, and rights against untouchability and exploitation.
o Directive Principles emphasize the state’s responsibility for citizens' welfare,
helping India become a Welfare State.
• Economic Reasons
o The Idea of Inclusive growth is considered vital for sustained economic progress of
any nation.
o Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections help reduce poverty, support the labor
force, and facilitate active participation of Vulnerables in economic development.
• Nation Building
o Excluding vulnerable groups leads to social resentment and inequality, hindering
nation-building efforts.
o Ensuring equitable access improves societal harmony, fostering a sense of unity
and inclusion.

1.1. Women in India

"When one woman is empowered, she becomes a catalyst for change" - Michelle Bachelet
(Former Chilean President)
Women in India are recognized as a vulnerable section of the population, facing systemic
disadvantages due to socio-cultural, economic, and political factors. This vulnerability is often
structured, stemming from imperfect or unjust societal systems.Women specifically face
significant barriers in terms of access to education, economic independence, legal justice,
and healthcare.

Key Data Regarding Women's Vulnerabilities

Health & Social Vulnerabilities
• Child Marriage (2019-21): 23.3% of women aged 20-24 were married before reaching the
legal age of 18.
• Sex Ratio at Birth (2018-20): The ratio remains unfavorably low at 907 female births for
every 1,000 male births, pointing to the persistence of son preference.
• Maternal Mortality (2018-20): The Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) stood at 97 deaths per
100,000 live births, compared to the SDG benchmark of 70.
• Malnutrition (2019-21): 18.7% of women between the ages of 15-49 have a Body Mass
Index (BMI) that is below normal.
• Health Awareness (2019-21): Only 21.6% of women have comprehensive knowledge of
HIV/AIDS.
Economic Vulnerabilities
• Labour Force Participation (2023-24): The Labour Force Participation Rate for females
aged 15 and above is only 41.7%.
• Wage Gap (Jan-Mar 2024): In casual labour, women earned significantly less than men.
o Rural: Women earned an average of ₹286 per day compared to men's ₹407.
o Urban: Women earned an average of ₹358 per day compared to men's ₹529.
• Burden of Unpaid Work (2024): On an average day, female participants spend 330
minutes on unpaid domestic services, while male participants spend only 101 minutes
on the same.

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Student Notes:
Educational Disadvantages
• Gender Gap in Literacy (2017-18): A significant literacy gap of 14.4 percentage points
persists between men and women aged 7 and above.
• Dropout Rate (2023-24): The dropout rate for girls increases significantly with the level of
education, reaching 12.60% at the secondary level (Class IX-X).
Crime and Violence
• Domestic Violence (2019-21): 29.3% of ever-married women aged 18-49 have
experienced physical, sexual, or emotional violence committed by their husband.
• Major Crimes (2022): "Cruelty by Husband or his Relatives" was the most reported major
crime against women, with 140,546 cases filed.
• Rape (2022): There were 31,516 reported victims of rape.
• Cyber Crimes (2022): 15,969 cases of cybercrimes targeting women were reported.

1.1.1. Key Challenges Faced by

Women in India The Shadow Pandemic: Gender Violence and Mental
Health Crisis
1. Deep-Rooted Patriarchy & The Shadow Pandemic refers to the rise in gender-based
Social Discrimination violence (GBV), especially domestic violence, during the
• From Birth to Adulthood: COVID-19 lockdowns (UN Women).
Discrimination starts
Factors like isolation, economic stress, and social unrest
early—female foeticide,
worsened violence, impacting women, children, and
child marriage, and dowry
vulnerable groups.
practices reinforce
inequality. Simultaneously, mental health issues like stress, depression,
and anxiety increased due to the lockdown.
• Restricted Roles:
Patriarchal norms confine Policy responses included emergency helplines, shelters,
women to household and mental health services to support affected individuals.
duties, limiting education
and career growth. Invisible Labor: The
• Stigma & Shame: Unacknowledged Tax
Menstruation remains The "Invisible Labor Tax"
taboo, forcing many girls to highlights the
drop out of school, while disproportionate burden of
working women lack unpaid care work on women.
menstrual leave policies. This unacknowledged "tax"
• Honor & Control: consumes time and energy,
Practices like honor limiting women’s economic
killings and acid attacks participation and well-being.
suppress women’s Addressing this requires re-
freedom under the guise of engineering societal
"family reputation." structures. Investing in
2. Violence & Exploitation – A universal care infrastructure
Daily Battle (like childcare) and promoting
• Rising Crimes: 87 rape shared responsibilities can
cases are reported daily reduce this burden.
(NCRB), and domestic
abuse remains
widespread.
• Unsafe Public Spaces: Fear of harassment restricts mobility and independence.
3. Economic Inequality – The Invisible Struggle
• Low Workforce Participation: Only 36.9% of women are in formal jobs (2025), far below
global averages.

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•Gender Pay Gap: Student Notes:
Women earn just
39.8% of men’s
wages for the same
work. Most working
women are in low-
paying, unstable
jobs with no social
security.
• Unpaid Labor
Burden: Women
spend 5.6 hours
daily on unpaid care
work—equivalent to
an invisible tax, draining their potential.
• Unequal Ownership of Assets: Women
in India consistently have lower
ownership levels than men across key
assets, including houses (42.3% for
women vs. 62.5% for men), land (31.7%
vs. 43.9%), mobile phones (54% vs.
91%), and bank accounts (79% vs.
86%).
4. Health & Nutrition – Ignored &
Underserved
• Anemia & Malnutrition: Half of Indian
women suffer from anemia (NFHS-5).
• Maternal Health Risks: High maternal mortality and lack of proper healthcare
endanger mothers.
• Cancer & Neglect: Cervical cancer
(2nd most common among women) Support for Working Women and Survivors of
lacks awareness and HPV vaccine Violence
access. Sakhi Niwas: Provides safe, affordable housing
• Aging Without Care: Widows and for working women and job seekers. These
elderly women face neglect, with little hostels offer daycare facilities for children,
support for their health needs. helping women maintain economic
5. Lack of Representation & Power independence. States receive financial aid to
• Political Marginalization: Only 14.4% run these centers.
of Lok Sabha MPs are women. Sakhi Centres (OSCs): Over 800 operational
• Sarpanch Pati Culture: Often centres provide essential services like medical,
husbands take oaths for elected legal, and psycho-social support to women
women leaders, mocking grassroots affected by violence. These centres have
empowerment. assisted over 1.1 million beneficiaries, offering
crucial relief and safety.
• Limited Access to Rights: Many
women lack property ownership, legal
aid, and digital literacy, keeping them dependent.
1.1.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Women's Protection and
Empowerment

Category Scheme/Act/Article Details

Constitutional Fundamental Rights Guarantee equality, protection from

Safeguards (Articles 14, 15, 21, 23) discrimination, and the right to live with
dignity.

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Student Notes:
Article 42 Ensures humane conditions for women in
workplaces.

73rd Constitutional Mandates one-third reservation for women in

Amendment (Article 243D) Panchayati Raj Institutions.

Legislative Prohibition of Child Aims to protect women from child marriage.

Interventions Marriage Act (2006)

Domestic Violence Act Aims to protect women from domestic

(2005) violence.

Sexual Harassment of Mandates mechanisms to combat workplace

Women at Workplace Act harassment.
(2013)

Maternity Benefit Act Provides 26 weeks of paid maternity leave.

(2017)

Welfare Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Addresses gender-biased sex selection and
Schemes for (BBBP) promotes girls' education.
Girls
Sukanya Samriddhi Yojna Encourages saving for girls' education and
marriage.

Udaan Scheme Provides scholarships for girls from minority

communities for higher education.

Welfare One Stop Centre Scheme Provides support to women affected by

Schemes for violence.
Women's
Safety Swadhar and Short Stay Offer shelter and rehabilitation for destitute
Homes women.

Nirbhaya Fund Finances initiatives for women's safety and

dignity.

Economic Pradhan Mantri Mudra Facilitates collateral-free loans for women

Empowerment Yojana (PMMY) entrepreneurs.
of Women
Deendayal Antyodaya Empowers rural women through Self-Help
Yojana Groups (SHGs).

Rashtriya Mahila Kosh Provides micro-financing to poor women for

(RMK) income-generating activities.

Stand Up India Scheme Supports SC/ST and women entrepreneurs

with bank loans for greenfield enterprises.

Health and Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Provides health insurance to vulnerable
Social Security Yojana (PMJAY) women, including Anganwadi workers and their
families.

Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Ensures free LPG connections for BPL women
Yojana to safeguard their health and well-being.

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Student Notes:

Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (Women's

Reservation Act)
The Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, passed
in 2023, is a landmark constitutional
amendment aimed at improving women’s
participation in Indian politics.
• It mandates the reservation of one-third
of seats for women in the Lok Sabha,
State Legislative Assemblies, and the
Delhi Assembly.
• Though hailed as a long-pending reform,
its full implementation depends on future
census and delimitation exercises.
Implementation Challenges
• The rotational nature of reserved seats
may discourage long-term investment by
elected women.
• There is also concern over
o proxy representation by male relatives,
o limited inclusion of OBC and minority women,
o lack of broader electoral reforms to support genuine empowerment.

Learning from an Example: Women Empowerment in Norway

Norway offers a powerful case study in using
policy reform to accelerate women’s
representation in leadership. In 2003, it
mandated a 40 percent quota for women on
corporate boards, raising female representation
from just 9 percent to over 40 percent in a few
years. This is a clear example of how strong legal
mandates can drive visible change.
However, the move also revealed a crucial lesson.

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Student Notes:
While quotas can open doors at the top, they do not automatically dismantle deeper
structural and cultural barriers that prevent women from becoming CEOs or holding key
executive roles.
Key takeaway: True empowerment requires a two-pronged approach.
• First, there must be affirmative policies to ensure women get a seat at the table.
• Second, there must be long-term investment in equality of opportunity through
mentorship, skill development, inclusive work cultures, and access to leadership
pipelines. Empowerment must reach every level, not just the boardroom

1.2. Children
Every child comes with the message that God is not yet discouraged of man" - Rabindranath
Tagore
In India, children are defined as individuals under the age of 18 years, unless they reach
adulthood earlier by applicable law. Children account for 39% of the population of India
according to Census 2011.
• Children represent one of the most vulnerable sections of society, and are highly
susceptible to exploitation, abuse, and neglect.
• Their vulnerability is further heightened in difficult circumstances such as being orphans,
refugees, child laborers, or victims of abuse.
1.2.1. Key Challenges Faced by Children
1. Education
• Learning Gaps and Dropout Rates: Malnutrition and inadequate early childhood
education contribute to learning gaps.
o 1.72 crore children dropped out, and school enrolment fell from 26.5 crore in 2021-
22 to 24.8 crore in 2023-24.
• Access to Pre-Primary Education: Children from economically weaker sections are
less likely to access pre-primary education, which impedes their learning journey.

UDISE Dashboard Data on School Dropout rates: Preparatory and Secondary

Best Practices:
• Shala Praveshotsav: Gujarat's annual school enrollment drive has reduced dropout
rates from 35% in 2003 to just 0.85% in 2024, enrolling children in kindergarten and
Classes 1, 9, and 11.

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• Thalliki Vandanam Scheme: Andhra Pradesh's initiative provides ₹13,000 per student Student Notes:
to mothers of 42.69 lakh school-going children, aiming to support education costs and
reduce dropout rates

2. Child Abuse and Exploitation

• Child Marriage:
Driven by poverty
and patriarchal
norms, child
marriage forces
early pregnancies
and limits
education,
perpetuating the
poverty cycle.
• Crimes Against
Children:
According to the
NCRB 2022, 18
crimes against
children occur
every hour, with
one-third under the
POCSO Act. Family members or acquaintances are often perpetrators.
• Child Labor: India has the largest number of working children globally, with over 10
million children aged 5-14 involved in child labor.
3. Health and Nutrition
• Malnutrition: India faces a high rate of malnutrition, with 32.1% underweight, 35.5%
stunted, and 19.3% wasted children. This, along with poor early childhood education,
exacerbates learning difficulties.
• Mortality and Health Indicators: India has one of the highest Infant Mortality Rates
(IMR) at 34 per 1,000 live births. Diarrhea and malnutrition are primary causes of
death for children under five.

Comparison of NFHS Data on various health indicators for Children in India

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Student Notes:
Best Practices:
• Rajiv Aarogyasri Scheme: Telangana has extended health insurance coverage to 2,215
orphans and BPL children in Child Care Institutions, offering cashless treatment up to
₹10 lakh for over 1,835 procedures.
• ICDS and Bharat Ratna Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Amrut Aahar Yojana: Maharashtra
reported a 51,141 decrease in severely malnourished children from 2023 to 2025,
attributed to initiatives like ICDS and the 'Bharat Ratna Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Amrut Aahar
Yojana'.

4. Gender Discrimination
• Child Marriage and Violence: Female
children face infanticide, neglect of
nutritional needs, lack of education, and
gender-based violence. 7% of girls aged 15
or younger were married between 2014-2020.
• Child Sex Ratio: The child sex ratio (0-6
years) was 919 girls per 1,000 boys in 2011,
reflecting ongoing gender imbalances.
5. Other Vulnerabilities
• The digital well-being of children in India is a
growing concern, with 60% of children at risk
of digital addiction.
o 70-80% of children exceed recommended
screen time, leading to issues like
cyberbullying, mental health concerns,
and behavioral changes.
• Children are disproportionately affected by
natural disasters and climate change,
exacerbating their vulnerabilities.
o In 2023, approximately 24.1 million children in India were impacted annually by
climate-related disasters such as floods, cyclones, and heatwaves.

Learning through Example: A Special Start: Finland's

Baby Box
Finland’s Baby Box policy is a powerful example of how
governments can promote equal opportunity from birth.
Since 1949, every new mother has received a free "Baby
Box" containing essential items for newborn care.
This initiative does more than offer material support. It
encourages prenatal care, fosters early child well-being,
and has played a role in significantly reducing infant mortality rates in Finland.
Key takeaway: Social policies that provide universal access to early life resources can
have lasting impacts. The Baby Box illustrates how state-led interventions can bridge gaps
in healthcare, reduce inequality, and promote a strong, healthy start for every child,
regardless of background.

1.2.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Children

Category Scheme/Act/Article Details

Constitutional Article 39(f) Ensures children's development in a healthy and

Safeguards dignified environment, protecting them from
exploitation.

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Student Notes:
Article 21A Guarantees free and compulsory education for
children aged 6-14 years.

Articles 23 & 24 Prohibit child trafficking and forced labor, with

specific restrictions on hazardous labor.

Article 45 Directs the provision of early childhood care and

education for children up to six years.

Welfare and Integrated Child Focuses on the nutritional and health

Development Development Services development of children under six.
Schemes (ICDS)

POSHAN Abhiyaan Targets reduction of malnutrition in children.

Samagra Shiksha Aims to improve learning outcomes for

Abhiyan disadvantaged children, focusing on quality
education.

National Education Prioritizes Early Childhood Care and Education

Policy (NEP) 2020 (ECCE) for foundational literacy and numeracy.

Childline-1098 A 24-hour Emergency helpline for children in

distress.

Mission Vatsalya The scheme has supported 1.7 lakh children

under non-institutional care programs in 2024–
25, aiming to provide family-based care and
rehabilitation.

Juvenile Justice (Care Focuses on the care, protection, and

Protection and and Protection of rehabilitation of children in need.
Legal Children) Act, 2015
Frameworks
Protection of Children Provides strict protection against child sexual
from Sexual Offences abuse.
(POCSO) Act, 2012

Prohibition of Child Criminalizes child marriage.

Marriage Act, 2006

1.3. Young Adults (Youth)

"The youth are the living messages we send to a future we will never see."– John F. Kennedy
In India, the National Youth Policy 2014 defines youth as individuals between the ages of 15
and 29 years.
• Youth is considered a period of transition from dependence to independence,
encompassing the age groups of adolescents (10-19 years) and young adults (15-24
years).
• With 65% of India's population under 35 years, youth form a critical demographic for
national development.

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1.3.1. Key Challenges Faced by Young Adults Student Notes:
1. Employment Crisis and Skill Mismatch
•High Unemployment: Youth unemployment remains high, with a significant portion of
the youth population either underemployed or disengaged from both employment and
learning.
o Youth unemployment Rate: 17.9% in Urban areas and 13.7% in Rural regions as of
May 2025
• Skill Gap: A substantial mismatch exists between available talent and the needs of the
industry.
o Only 4.4% of the workforce aged 15-29 has received formal skills training,
contributing to a high unemployment rate.
o Informalization: An increasing trend toward informal, short-term contracts in the
job market pushes youth into the informal economy, where social security benefits
are absent.
o Exploitation under Gig
Economy: Precarious
Working Conditions in
the gig economy leads to
exploitation of Youth. Key
factors for such
conditions include poor
pay, lack of social
security, and absence of
worker protection
regulations.
2. Mental Health Crisis, Drug
Abuse and Suicide Epidemic
• Drug Abuse: Around 13% of
drug users in India are under
20 years old, exacerbating
physical and mental health
issues.
• Mental Health Issues: A
growing crisis of mental health problems, including depression and suicidal
tendencies, especially among LGBTQIA+ youth, calls for urgent attention.
• Suicide Epidemic: Student suicides highlight the immense social and psychological
pressures faced by youth mainly due to mental health issues, social pressures as well
as drug abuse.
o India reported 13,044 student suicides in 2022 (NCRB data), nearly doubling in a
decade.

Learning through Example: Switzerland's

Secret to Youth Success
Switzerland offers a strong example of how
practical education can prepare youth for
meaningful careers. Around 70% of Swiss
teenagers choose vocational
apprenticeships after school rather than
traditional academic routes.
These apprenticeships combine classroom learning with on-the-job training. Companies
like Nestlé pay students as they work and learn, ensuring they gain real-world skills and
income at the same time. As a result, Switzerland enjoys one of the lowest youth
unemployment rates in the world.

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Student Notes:
Key takeaway: A well-designed vocational training system equips youth with job-ready
skills, reduces unemployment, and bridges the gap between education and industry. It
highlights the importance of aligning education with practical experience and market
needs.

1.3.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Youth

Category Scheme/Program Details
Youth National Youth Aims for holistic youth development to
Development and Policy 2014 empower youth for nation-building.
Engagement
Nehru Yuva Kendra Provides rural youth with opportunities for
Sangathan nation-building and skill development.

National Service Promotes volunteerism and social service.

Scheme (NSS)

Life Skill Training for Equips youth with skills to cope with
Adolescents pressures and make healthy life choices.

Mera Yuva Bharat A platform launched in 2023 to engage youth

(MY Bharat) in volunteerism and nation-building
activities.
Skill Development National Skill Framework to coordinate skill development
and Employment Development efforts across India.
Generation Mission (NSDM)
Pradhan Mantri Provides skill training to improve youth
Kaushal Vikas employability.
Yojana (PMKVY)

Employment-Linked The Indian government approved an ₹1 trillion

Incentive (ELI) Employment-Linked Incentive (ELI) scheme,
scheme aiming to create approximately 35 million jobs
between August 2025 and July 2027

Start-Up India and Facilitates entrepreneurship by providing

Stand Up India financial support to youth entrepreneurs,
especially from SC/ST backgrounds.
Social Security Code on Social Expands social security benefits to include
and Health Security (2020) gig and platform workers, where majority of
those employed are youth.
Pradhan Mantri Affordable insurance schemes for
Jeevan Jyoti Bima underprivileged youth.
Yojana (PMJJBY) and
Pradhan Mantri
Suraksha Bima
Yojana (PMSBY)

Mental Health Care Aims to reduce stigmatization and improve

Act (2017) access to mental health care for youth.

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Student Notes:
National Youth Policy
The National Youth Policy
(NYP) provides a structured
approach to youth
development in India. The
last finalized version, NYP
2014, focused on
empowering individuals aged
15–29 to achieve their full
potential.
• It aimed to align youth
energy with the goals of
national development
through five key priority areas: education, employment and entrepreneurship, health
and sports, youth leadership, and social justice.
• The policy emphasized inclusion, skill-building, and active participation in civic life, and
was aligned with national policies like NEP 2020 and international frameworks such as
the Sustainable Development Goals.
Over time, the need for an updated framework became clear due to changing economic
realities, rapid technological shifts, and rising mental health concerns among youth.
Responding to this, the government released the Draft National Youth Policy 2024, building
on past learnings and aiming for deeper impact during the Amrit Kaal period.
Key Features Draft National Youth Policy 2024:
• Tackling NEET Crisis: Aims to reduce the NEET (Not in Education, Employment or
Training) rate, which is 32.9% of youth aged 15–29 (NSSO 2020–21).
• Focus on Youth Demographic: Targets individuals aged 15–29 years, who constitute
India’s largest working-age population segment.
• Skill, Up-skill, Re-skill Model: Emphasizes readiness for Industry 4.0 through
continuous skill enhancement aligned with market needs.
• Digital Empowerment via YUVA Portal: Introduces a one-stop online platform for
internships, job opportunities, mentoring, and career counseling.
• Entrepreneurship and Job Creation: Encourages youth to become job creators by
promoting innovation, startup ecosystems, and e-commerce access.
• Leadership Development: Proposes a School of Leadership at RGNIYD and platforms
like Youth Parliament Festival to shape future leaders.
• Inclusion of Vulnerable Groups: Prioritizes outreach to dropouts, rural, disabled, and
disadvantaged youth through tailored programs.
• Mental Health and Well-being: Integrates counseling, stress management, and
awareness around substance abuse into youth health strategy.
• Fitness as Daily Culture: Promotes “Fitness ki Dose, Aadha Ghanta Roz” and
strengthens youth engagement in sports and adventure activities.
• Data-Driven Governance: Recommends District Youth Information & Resource
Centers and analytics for real-time youth tracking and support.
The draft aims to create a youth ecosystem that not only supports individuals but
positions them as leaders of change in a rapidly evolving India.

1.4. Elderly (Senior Citizens) in India

"A society that abandons its elders cuts its own roots." - Confucius
In India, "elderly" refers to citizens aged 60 and above. According to the 2011 Census, there
were nearly 104 million senior citizens, constituting 8.6% of the population.

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This number is projected to triple Student Notes:
by 2050, reaching 300 million
(18%), with a rising proportion of
elderly women, particularly in
rural areas, facing issues like
poverty, dependency, and
loneliness.
1.4.1. Key Challenges Faced
by the Elderly
• Health Concerns:
o High prevalence of
chronic illnesses like
diabetes, heart
diseases, and cataracts.
o Limited access to
geriatric care, with few
healthcare providers
trained for elderly-
specific health needs.
o Rising treatment costs for conditions like cancer, leading families into financial
distress.
o Mental health issues, including depression, loneliness, and identity crises, are
common, as they face emotional neglect.
> Approximately 18% of elderly individuals experience depression, with loneliness
affecting about 35% of seniors, particularly in urban areas.
• Social Challenges:
o Changing family
structures: The rise
of nuclear families
has led to a lack of
companionship and
caregiving. Many
elderly thus suffer
from social isolation,
especially those living
alone.
> A study indicates
that 34% of seniors experience social isolation, with 55.4% reporting feelings of
loneliness.
o Elder abuse is rampant, with incidents of physical, verbal, and emotional abuse,
particularly by family members.
> Elder abuse remains a significant issue, with prevalence rates varying from 9.6% to
61.7% across different states
• Economic Challenges:
o Limited Pension Coverage: Only 10% of India's workforce has access to pensions.
Even through government schemes, the amount paid is a meagre Rs 200-500 per month,
which is insufficient to meet basic needs.
o Dependence on Children: Due to limited pension access, many elderly individuals rely
on their children for financial support.
o Lack of Health Insurance: A large portion of elderly individuals work in the informal
sector, leaving them without health insurance. This leads to high medical costs and
inadequate healthcare
o Housing Challenges: Many elderly individuals struggle to access adequate housing
due to limited financial resources.

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• Challenges Faced by Elderly Women: Student Notes:
o Widowhood is more prevalent among elderly women, leading to increased financial
vulnerability.
o Older women are more likely to face abuse and denied property rights due to gender
discrimination and traditional societal norms.
• Technology Barriers:
o Many elderly face challenges with digital literacy, hindering their ability to access
services that are increasingly digitalized.
o Aadhaar exclusions: Elderly individuals' fingerprint degradation can lead to exclusion
from welfare schemes that require Aadhaar verification.

Learning through Example: The Graying Globe

As the world sees a rapid rise in the elderly population, Japan’s
experience offers valuable lessons. Often called a “Silver
Democracy”, Japan’s political landscape is increasingly
shaped by its ageing voters, with policy focus shifting toward
pensions, healthcare, and elderly welfare.
One major issue Japan faces is the growing burden of elderly
care. To tackle this, it has turned to technological solutions,
such as the Robear Care Robot (shown in picture), which
assists caregivers and showcases how innovation can ease
care responsibilities.
Key takeaway: Preparing for an aging society requires more than just policy—it demands
foresight, welfare planning, and the use of technology. Japan’s approach reminds us that
ensuring dignity, inclusion, and support for the elderly is not optional, but essential for social
justice in aging democracies.

1.4.2. Government Schemes and Policies for the Elderly

Category Scheme/Act/Policy Details
Constitutional Article 41 Ensures the right to public assistance for old age.
and Legal
Maintenance and Mandates children to provide maintenance to
Framework
Welfare of Parents and elderly parents and ensures protection of life and
Senior Citizens Act, property.
2007 (Amended 2019)
Welfare Indira Gandhi National Provides monthly pensions to BPL elderly
Schemes for Old Age Pension citizens.
the Elderly Scheme (IGNOAPS)
Pradhan Mantri Vaya Ensures a pension for senior citizens with an 8%
Vandana Yojana return on lump sum investments.
(PMVVY)

National Programme Provides preventive and curative healthcare for

for the Health Care for the elderly.
the Elderly (NPHCE)

Rashtriya Vayoshri Distributes assistive devices (e.g., wheelchairs,

Yojana (RVY) hearing aids) to BPL senior citizens.

Senior Citizens Health Offers health insurance coverage to elderly people

Insurance Scheme in BPL families.
(SCHIS)

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Student Notes:
SAGE Initiative Promotes startups in the senior care sector.
Specific National Policy for Focuses on welfare, promoting preventive care,
Government Senior Citizens, 2011 income security, and social participation.
Policies and
Schemes Elder Line A helpline that provides assistance to senior
citizens in distress.

Pradhan Mantri Jan Extended to include all citizens aged 70 and

Arogya Yojana (AB- above, covering healthcare costs up to ₹5 lakh.
PMJAY)

The Second Demographic Dividend

The second demographic dividend occurs when a large working-age population enters their
highest income-earning years, typically between 40-49 years. During this period, individuals
focus more on saving for retirement and are at their most productive, contributing to
economic growth.
• India’s Case: India should focus on the second demographic dividend by addressing
challenges like skill deficits (NEP 2020's goal to improve GER), employment issues
(underemployment, especially in the informal sector), and promoting savings,
investment, and social security to support future growth. Empowering women and
managing urbanization challenges are also critical.
Maximizing Benefits from India's Second Demographic Dividend
• Investing in Human Capital: South Korea fueled growth by investing in universal
education and vocational training, creating a skilled workforce.
• Generating Productive Employment: China absorbed rural workers into urban
industrial jobs using SEZs and export-oriented policies during its demographic
dividend peak.
• Promoting Savings and Investment: Singapore mobilized savings through CPF,
supporting infrastructure development and economic diversification.
• Strengthening Social Security and Healthcare Systems: Japan supported its aging
population with universal healthcare and pension systems.
• Empowering Women: Vietnam boosted female labor force participation through
investments in education, childcare, and gender equality policies.

1.5. Scheduled Castes (SCs) in India

"The caste system is like an elevator that stopped working centuries ago - some are trapped
in the basement while others enjoy the penthouse."-
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Reservation policy debates)
Scheduled Castes (SCs) are communities identified
under Article 341 of the Indian Constitution as facing
historical discrimination and deserving special
protection. Initially, this status applied to marginalized
Hindu communities, later it was expanded to include
Sikhs (1956) and Buddhists (1990). The term Dalit is
often used to refer to this group.
1.5.1. Key Challenges Faced by Scheduled
Castes
1. Social Exclusion:
o SCs face social ostracism due to the
entrenched caste system.

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o Discrimination persists in public spaces, restricting access to resources, including Student Notes:
basic necessities.
o Social practices like honour killing, female foeticide, child marriage, and manual
scavenging continue to affect them.
2. Economic Disadvantage:
o Poverty: As per Census 2011, 34% of SCs lived below the poverty line, much higher than
the national average of 9%.
o Landlessness: Approximately 45% of SC households are landless.
o Wealth Distribution: SCs own only 7% of India’s wealth, despite comprising 25.2% of
the population.
o Many SCs work in low-skilled,
informal sectors, facing job insecurity
and earning lower wages than other
castes.
3. Political Underrepresentation:
o Despite constitutional provisions for
reservations, SCs remain
underrepresented in decision-making
bodies, holding only 4% of senior
positions in the government.
4. Vulnerability and Exploitation:
o SCs are disproportionately affected
by violence and human rights
violations. In 2022, 57,582 crimes were reported against SCs.
o Manual scavenging, primarily undertaken by Dalit women, remains a practice of
exploitation.
o SCs are overrepresented in prisons, constituting 20.74% of the prison population.

Manual Scavenging in India: Persistence of a Grave Injustice

Manual scavenging remains
one of India’s most
pressing social and human
rights challenges,
disproportionately
impacting Dalits, especially
Dalit women. Although
outlawed under the
Employment of Manual
Scavengers and
Construction of Dry
Latrines (Prohibition) Act,
1993, and further
criminalized by the
Prohibition of Employment
as Manual Scavengers and
their Rehabilitation Act,
2013, the practice
continues due to a nexus of
caste hierarchies,
economic deprivation, and
poor enforcement.

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Student Notes:
Scale and Impact
• Caste and Gender: An estimated 98% of manual scavengers are Dalits, and 95% are
women (Shah et al., 2015; UN Women, 2014), indicating intersectional
marginalisation rooted in caste and patriarchy.
• Deaths and Lack of Justice: Over 40 deaths were reported in just six months of 2024
(Safai Karmachari Andolan).
o From 1993 to 2020, 1,013 deaths were officially recorded, yet convictions remain
rare.
o Most cases are labelled as "accidents," and affected families often do not receive
compensation or meaningful rehabilitation.
Structural Reasons for Persistence of Manual Scavenging
• Entrenched Caste System and social stigma
• Lack of alternative livelihoods, education, or land
• Poor sanitation infrastructure and slow mechanization
• Weak implementation of laws and accountability mechanisms
• Apathy from authorities and wider society
Way Forward
• Strict enforcement of existing laws with accountability mechanisms
• Full mechanization of sanitation work and modern sewage systems
• Robust rehabilitation programs, including land, education, and employment
• Skill development and financial inclusion for liberated manual scavengers
• Societal change through education, media, and sustained public discourse to end
caste-based occupational segregation

5. Access to Basic Services:

o Education: Malnutrition and lack of early childhood education hamper SC children’s
learning.
o Health: IMR among SCs is 83 per 1,000 live births, significantly higher than the national
average of 61.8.
o Basic Amenities: Only 28% of SCs had access to electricity in 2011, compared to the
national average of 48%.
6. Internal Disparities: There are significant inequalities within SC communities, with
advanced SC sub-groups benefiting more from reservations than marginalized sub-groups.

Sub-Classification of
Scheduled Castes
(SCs)
The Supreme Court
of India, in the State
of Punjab & Others v
Davinder Singh &
Others case, has
ruled that sub-
classification of
Scheduled Castes
(SCs) is permissible.
• This landmark
judgment allows for creating separate quotas for more backward groups within the SC
category, addressing specific needs and ensuring better representation in education
and employment.

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Student Notes:
Key Highlights of the Judgment
• Constitutional Clarity: The Supreme Court affirmed that sub-classification within SCs
does not violate Article 341(2), as the reservation list is flexible.
• State’s Responsibility and Data Collection: States are allowed to sub-classify SCs
based on inadequate representation in public services. However, the state must
provide empirical data supporting the claim of backwardness in these groups.
• Creamy Layer Principle: The debate on extending the "creamy layer" concept to SCs
and STs was discussed, but the judgment does not mandate its implementation.

Arguments Supporting Sub- Arguments Opposing Sub-Classification of

Classification of SCs: SCs:
• Substantive Equality: The approach • Risk of Division: Critics fear that it could
ensures the most marginalized within lead to fragmentation within the SC
SCs are given targeted support. community, weakening their collective
• Efficient Governance: Sub- voice in socio-political matters.
classification can improve • Potential for Political Exploitation:
governance efficiency by addressing There are concerns about the
the unique challenges faced by manipulation of sub-classification for
various SC groups. vote bank politics.
• Recognition of Diversity: • Data Limitations: Lack of accurate
Acknowledges the heterogeneity of caste data makes it difficult to
SCs, with some groups facing more substantiate claims of
severe discrimination and social underrepresentation within specific SC
exclusion than others. subgroups.

The Supreme Court’s ruling on sub-classification marks a significant shift in India’s

reservation policies for SCs. However, the government has clarified on multiple occasions
that subclassification shall not be done for SCs.

Learning through Example: Japan- Dowa Education Movement

Japan’s Burakumin community, once treated as social outcasts,
faced generations of systemic discrimination. In response, they
initiated the Dowa Education Movement, using education as a
transformative tool.
Schools were encouraged to teach about Burakumin history and
human rights, aiming to challenge prejudice early in life. By
raising awareness among children, this approach helped shift
mindsets and promote dignity and equality.
Key takeaway: Long-term social change often begins in the
classroom. Curriculum reform and inclusive education are powerful means to challenge
stereotypes and build a more equitable society from the ground up

1.5.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Scheduled Castes

Category Scheme/Act/Initiative Details
Article 14 Ensures equality before the law for SCs.
Constitutional
and Legal Article 15(4) & 15(5) Enables the State to make provisions for the
Safeguards advancement of SCs in education and
public services.

Article 17 Abolishes untouchability and prohibits its

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Student Notes:
practice in any form.

Article 46 Directs the State to promote the welfare and

protect SCs from social injustice and
exploitation.
Key Acts for Protection of Civil Rights Legal safeguards against caste-based
Protection Act, 1955 discrimination.
Scheduled Castes and Prevents atrocities and provides financial
Scheduled Tribes assistance to victims.
(Prevention of Atrocities)
Act, 1989

Prohibition of Employment Bans manual scavenging and mandates

as Manual Scavengers and rehabilitation.
their Rehabilitation Act,
2013
Government SC Sub-Plan (SCSP) Allocates funds specifically for the
Initiatives and development of SCs across various sectors.
Schemes
Post-Matric Scholarships Financial assistance for SC students
pursuing higher education.

Mahila Adhikarita Yojana Financial assistance for SC women to

promote income generation.

National Safai Karamchari Provides financial assistance for income-

Finance and Development generating schemes for SCs.
Corporation (NSKFDC)
Health and NAMASTE Scheme Aims to train sewer/septic tank workers and
Social Welfare provide PPE kits.
Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Health insurance component for SCs and
Yojana (RSBY) other vulnerable groups.
Economic Stand Up India Facilitates bank loans for SC/ST and women
Empowerment entrepreneurs to promote self-employment.
PM Mudra Yojana Collateral-free loans to promote micro-
enterprises, including those owned by SCs.
Institutional National Commission for Monitors and safeguards the socio-economic
Support Scheduled Castes (NCSC) interests of SCs.
National Commission for Focuses on the welfare of manual
Safai Karamcharis (NCSK) scavengers.

1.6. Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India

"The land does not belong to us; we belong to the land."
- Gond proverb(Tribal Wisdom)
Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India are social groups
identified by the Constitution as suffering from poverty,
powerlessness, and social stigma. The Constitution of
India defines Scheduled Tribes under Article 366 (25),
which designates them for special treatment and ensures
their protection and welfare.

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According to the 2011 Census, Student Notes:
STs constitute approximately
8% of India's total population,
with a literacy rate of 60%,
lower than the national average
of 75%. They also face high
levels of poverty,
unemployment, and social
exclusion.
1.6.1. Key Challenges
Faced by Scheduled Tribes
1. Poverty and Economic
Disadvantage:
• 45.3% of rural ST
populations live below
the poverty line, a
significantly higher
proportion compared
to other social groups.
• Many ST households
are landless or have
limited access to
economic
opportunities,
contributing to their
economic
disadvantage.
2. Land Alienation and
Resource Depletion:
• Development
projects, such as
mining and dam
constructions, have
led to land
alienation, depriving
STs of their traditional
land and natural
resources, thereby
impacting their
livelihood and
culture.
3. Educational and Health
Disadvantages:
• STs face poor health
outcomes, including
higher infant
mortality rates (IMR), under-five mortality rates (U5MR), and high levels of anemia
among women. They also suffer from low literacy rates (59% in 2011) and high dropout
rates, hindering educational progress.
4. Crime and Violence:
• Tribal communities, particularly tribal women, are disproportionately affected by
violence. In 2022, there were 1,347 rape cases and 1,022 assault cases reported
against tribal women, highlighting their vulnerability and lack of protection.

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Student Notes:
How the Forest Rights Act (FRA) Gives Power Back to Forest-Dwelling Tribes
For generations, STs living in forests faced injustice, with governments taking away their land
and rights. The Forest Rights Act (FRA), passed in 2006, aims to correct these wrongs and
give STs and other traditional forest dwellers legal control over their ancestral forests.
1. Fixing Past Injustices: Recognizing Land & Resource Rights
• Legal Ownership: The FRA gives STs legal recognition of their rights over the forest
land they’ve lived on for generations.
Types of Rights Granted:
o Individual Forest Rights (IFR): The right for families to live on and use forest land
for their livelihood.
o Community Forest Rights (CFR): The right for entire villages to manage common
resources like grazing land, water sources, and Minor Forest Produce (MFP) such
as bamboo and herbs.
o Community Forest Resource Rights (CFRR): The right and responsibility to
protect, regenerate, and manage local forests sustainably.
2. Empowering Tribal Communities: Putting Decisions in Local Hands
• Gram Sabha is Key: The Gram Sabha (village assembly) has the power to decide on
forest rights, giving STs authority over local governance.
• Protection from Forced Removal: The Act protects STs from illegal evictions and
ensures proper rehabilitation and resettlement if land is taken for important
projects.
• Securing Tribal Homelands: For Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs),
the FRA secures their rights to their entire traditional habitat, even if some parts are
classified as revenue land.
3. Building Better Livelihoods & Economic Security
• Access to Forest Bounty: Legal rights to collect, use, and sell Minor Forest Produce
(MFP) help create sustainable livelihoods and improve food security.
• Development Needs Met: The Act allows the use of small amounts of forest land for
building essential community services like schools, health clinics, and roads.
4. Protecting Culture & Conserving Forests Together
• Valuing Traditional Knowledge: The FRA protects the traditional knowledge of STs
about biodiversity and conservation.
• Community-Led Conservation: The Act empowers STs to manage forests
sustainably, helping preserve biodiversity, combat climate change, and protect
cultural heritage.
Changes to the Act: Steps Forward & Concerns
• Positive Change (2017): Reclassifying bamboo as Minor Forest Produce (MFP) allowed
STs to harvest and sell bamboo freely, boosting incomes.
• Recent Concerns (2023 Amendments): Amendments to the Forest Conservation Act
(FCAA 2023) raised concerns that changes could weaken the requirement for Gram
Sabha consent and FRA compliance before diverting forest land for projects, threatening
ST rights.
• Implementation Problems: Despite positive changes, slow and inconsistent FRA
implementation across many states remains a challenge.

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)

PVTGs are a sub-class of Scheduled Tribes recognized by the Government of India as the
most socio-economically marginalized tribal communities. There are currently 75 PVTGs
spread across 18 states and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Identification Criteria for PVTGs
• Pre-agricultural level of technology

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Student Notes:
• Stagnant or declining population
• Extremely low literacy levels
• Subsistence-level economy
Key Issues faced by PVTGs
• Displacement and Loss of Livelihoods:
Displaced by development, conservation, and
infrastructure projects with poor rehabilitation
support.
• Denial of Land and Habitat Rights: Despite
laws like the Forest Rights Act, many remain
alienated from ancestral lands and resources.
• Extreme Poverty and Malnutrition: High levels
of hunger, health issues, and literacy rates
around only 30–40%.
• Exploitation and Market Exclusion: Limited
access to markets for forest produce and vulnerability during health or climate crises.
• Data Gaps and Outdated Lists: Inadequate surveys and demographic data result in
ineffective targeting of welfare programs.
Government Initiatives
• PM-JANMAN Scheme: It is a new scheme launched by Government of India, especially
focused on saturating PVTG habitations with basic amenities such as:
o Housing
o Drinking water
o Healthcare and nutrition
o Road connectivity
o Education and skill development
o ₹24,000 crore allocated for implementation.

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Student Notes:
Way Forward
• Ensure community-led planning and culturally sensitive development.
• Improve infrastructure and access to public services.
• Guarantee legal and land rights, with effective implementation of the Forest Rights Act.
• Promote livelihood diversification through skill training and forest-based enterprises.
• Strengthen data collection and regularize PVTG lists to enable targeted delivery.

Learning through Example:

First Nations Education
Stewardship" (Canada)
In Canada, First Nations
communities have
reclaimed control over their
children’s education
through a model called
Education Stewardship.
Instead of following
externally imposed
curricula, tribal councils
now design their own
content—teaching indigenous languages, traditional skills like hunting, and land-based
knowledge.
This model moves beyond colonial systems to build cultural pride, relevance, and
resilience. Children learn in ways that affirm their identity, heritage, and community values,
fostering both educational engagement and strong self-worth.
Key Takeaway:
When communities shape their own education:
• Learning becomes culturally rooted and contextually meaningful
• It strengthens identity, dignity, and participation
• Bridges trust gaps between learners and institutions
• Empowers the next generation to preserve heritage while progressing
Empowering marginalized groups to steer their educational journey can drive lasting
inclusion and development.

1.6.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Protection and Welfare of STs
Category Scheme/Act/Provision Details
Constitutional Article 15(5) Allows the state to make special provisions for the
Provisions advancement of STs in educational institutions.
Article 16(4) Permits the reservation of vacancies for STs in
public services.

Article 17 Abolishes untouchability, ensuring STs are not

discriminated against.

Article 46 Directs the State to promote the educational and

economic interests of STs.

Article 338A Establishes the National Commission for

Scheduled Tribes (NCST) to monitor and

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Student Notes:
safeguard STs' rights.
Legal Scheduled Castes and Provides legal protection and punitive measures
Safeguards Scheduled Tribes for atrocities committed against STs.
(Prevention of
Atrocities) Act, 1989
Forest Rights Act, 2006 Grants STs and other forest-dwelling communities
the right to access and manage forest resources.
Welfare Kasturba Gandhi Residential schools for tribal girls to improve their
Schemes and Balika Vidyalayas education.
Initiatives
Educational Eklavya Model Provides quality education with a focus on tribal
Initiatives Residential Schools culture and heritage.
(EMRS)
Post-Matric Financial aid for ST students pursuing higher
Scholarships education.
Healthcare National Tribal Health Focuses on improving healthcare accessibility
Initiatives Care Plan for tribal populations.
Pradhan Mantri Jan Extends health insurance benefits to vulnerable
Arogya Yojana (PMJAY) tribal populations.
Economic Mahila Adhikarita Offers financial assistance to ST women for
Empowerment Yojana income-generating activities.
Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Initiatives like the Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Gram
Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan Utkarsh Abhiyan (DAJGUA), with an outlay of
(DAJGUA), ₹80,000 crore over five years, aim to enhance the
socio-economic conditions of tribal communities

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1.7. Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in India Student Notes:

An OBC student doesn't need lowered cutoffs - she needs the childhood nutrition you had."-
Savitribai Phule Study Circle pamphlet
Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in India refer to a group of communities that are
educationally or socially disadvantaged but do not fall under the categories of Scheduled
Castes (SCs) or Scheduled Tribes (STs).
Although the term "OBC" is not directly defined in the Constitution, it allows the State to make
special provisions for the advancement of these classes. The Mandal Commission report,
1980, recommended identifying backward communities based on certain social and
educational criteria, leading to the establishment of a list for OBCs. As per the 2004-05 NSSO
round, OBCs make up about 41% of India's population.
1.7.1. Key Challenges Faced by OBCs
• Socioeconomic Disparities:
o Poverty and Inequality: A significant proportion of OBCs live below the poverty line,
with limited access to essential services like education and healthcare.
o Concentration in Rural: OBCs are often concentrated in rural areas, where they are
primarily engaged in agriculture or low-skilled informal jobs, leading to low incomes
and limited job security. Many are landless or marginal farmers.
• Educational Challenges:
o High Dropout Rates: Economic pressures and lack of support often lead to high
dropout rates among OBC students, particularly in rural areas.
o Low Literacy Levels: OBCs typically exhibit lower literacy rates than other social
groups, which limits their opportunities for skilled employment.
• Political Underrepresentation:
o Despite various constitutional provisions, OBCs have limited representation in
decision-making bodies, which means their issues are often inadequately addressed in
the policy-making process.
• Social Discrimination:
o OBCs continue to face discrimination and exclusion, despite constitutional
safeguards aimed at promoting their welfare and integration.
• Internal Disparities:
o The OBC category is diverse, and some dominant landowning groups within OBCs have
disproportionately benefited from reservation policies, which leaves marginalized
sub-groups without adequate support.

Learning through Example: Affirmative Action: Divergent

Paths for Backward Classes
Malaysia’s Bumiputera Policy (since 1971) offers a bold
model of affirmative action. It grants significant
preferences—like university seat quotas and business
licenses—to the Malay majority, aiming to bridge economic
gaps and promote social cohesion through state-led
redistribution.
In contrast, India introduced 27% reservations for OBCs in 1990. Though met with public
backlash during the Mandal protests, it led to a quiet transformation: by 2022, OBCs made
up nearly 23.5% of new IAS officers, reflecting the power of sustained inclusion policies.
Key Takeaway:
• Affirmative action can take radical or incremental forms, depending on historical
context

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Student Notes:
• Both models—Malaysia’s majority-targeted upliftment and India’s backward-class
empowerment—aim to level the playing field
• Political will and public support are crucial to balance social justice with cohesion
• Long-term, well-structured policies can lead to real representation and equity even if
social resistance is high initially

1.7.2. Government Schemes and Policies for OBC Protection and Welfare
Scheme/Act/Provisio
Category n Details
Constitutional Article 15(4) & Article Empowers the State to make special provisions for
Provisions 16(4) the advancement of OBCs, including reservations in
educational institutions and public employment.
Article 340 Allows the President to appoint commissions to
investigate the conditions of OBCs.

National Established under the 102nd Constitutional

Commission for Amendment Act, 2018, granting constitutional
Backward Classes status to the NCBC.
(NCBC)

Welfare Pre and Post-Matric Provides financial support to OBC students for
Schemes and Scholarships primary, secondary, and higher education.
Initiatives
National Fellowship Financial support for OBC students pursuing M.Phil.
for OBCs and Ph.D. studies.

Shilp Sampada Enhances technical skills of OBC communities,

Scheme especially in traditional crafts.

PM-DAKSH (Pradhan Provides skill development opportunities for OBC

Mantri Dakshta Aur communities via a portal and mobile app.
Kushalta Sampann
Hitgrahi)

New Swarnima Provides loans up to ₹1,00,000 to OBC women for

Scheme for Women self-reliance without requiring personal investment.

Saksham Scheme Offers term loans for young professionals from OBC
backgrounds.

Stand Up India Facilitates bank loans for SC/ST and OBC women
entrepreneurs to promote greenfield enterprises.

PM-YASASVI The PM-YASASVI scheme provides scholarships for

OBC, EBC, and DNT students pursuing higher
education
In Uttar Pradesh, the government allocated ₹2 crore
to improve hostel facilities for OBC students,

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Student Notes:
benefiting over 30 lakh students through
scholarships and fee reimbursements.

Subcategorisation of Backward Classes

Subcategorisation refers to dividing the broader OBC, SC, and ST categories into smaller
sub-groups to ensure a fairer distribution of reservation benefits. It stems from evidence
showing that dominant sub-castes often corner most benefits, leaving the most
marginalized underrepresented. The move aims to make affirmative action more inclusive,
equitable, and effective.
Key Arguments and Recent Developments:
• Supports Social Justice: Aligns with Articles 14, 16(4), and 46 of the Constitution,
ensuring adequate representation for all deprived groups.
• Empirical Backing: Supported by data from the Rohini Commission and state-level
studies, showing intra-group disparities.
• Legal Shift: The 2024 Supreme Court verdict overruled Chinnaiah (2004), allowing data-
based subcategorisation within SCs and STs without excluding any group.
• State Initiatives: States like Telangana, Karnataka, and Bihar have already piloted sub-
group quotas or rationalised reservation structures.
• Concerns Raised: Critics warn of political misuse, administrative complexity, and the
risk of excluding deserving castes if not carefully implemented.
• Implementation Needs: Relies on robust data from sources like the 2025 caste census
and regular policy reviews to ensure impact and fairness.
The move towards subcategorisation represents a critical evolution in India’s reservation
system. If implemented transparently and backed by strong data, it can deepen social
justice by ensuring that benefits reach the most deprived within deprived groups, fulfilling
the true spirit of affirmative action.

1.8. Minorities in India

"The essence of democracy is minority protection."-Gandhian Insight
In India, minorities are those social groups that face specific challenges due to social, political,
and economic systems that create disparities. The Constitution of India uses the term
'minority' in several articles, but does not provide a direct definition.
The National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992 identifies religious minorities such as
Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Zoroastrians (Parsis), and Jains, and linguistic
minorities at the state level. According to the 2011 Census, religious minorities make up
approximately 19.3% of India's population, with Muslims being the largest group at 14.2%.
1.8.1. Key Challenges Faced by Minorities
Minorities in India face various challenges that hinder their social, economic, and political
integration:
1. Socio-Economic Disparities: The Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025
• Poverty and Inequality: Minorities often Enhance transparency and accountability in
face lower literacy rates, poorer health the administration of waqf properties.
indicators, and limited access to basic Ensure representation of Muslim women on
services. For instance, the 66th round waqf boards and protect inheritance rights.
NSSO survey indicated that Muslims
Promote sectarian inclusivity by mandating
generally had lower literacy and
representation from various Muslim sects on
education rates than other communities. waqf boards.
• Employment Barriers: Many minorities
face underrepresentation in formal

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employment and high-paying jobs. The Sachar Committee report highlighted Muslims’ Student Notes:
overrepresentation in informal sectors like street vending and underrepresentation in
public services.
2. Social Discrimination and Exclusion:
• Prejudice and Marginalization: Minorities face societal prejudice, leading to social
exclusion and identity-based discrimination.
• Communal Tensions: The persistence of communal riots and violence affects the
security and well-being of minority groups.
3. Political Underrepresentation:
• Minorities often have limited representation in key political and civil service bodies,
preventing their issues from being adequately addressed in policy formulation.
4. Challenges for Minority Women:
• Minority women face intersectional disadvantages related to gender and community,
which compound their vulnerability and inequality.
5. Threats to Culture and Identity:
• Rapid socio-economic changes and urbanization pose risks to the traditional cultures
of minority groups, sometimes leading to the erosion of unique practices.
Ensuring Minority Voice: A New Zealand Model
New Zealand offers a powerful model of minority
empowerment. Since 1867, the Māori people—its indigenous
population—have had reserved seats in Parliament. Today,
7 out of 120 seats are guaranteed, and Māori voters can
choose whether to vote on the general or Māori electoral roll.
This system has worked: Māori now hold 21% of Parliament
seats, exceeding their 17% population share, with many leaders in prominent positions.
Key Takeaway:
• Dedicated political pathways can ensure real representation for minority communities
• Such inclusion builds trust in democratic institutions and reflects the nation's diversity
• India can explore inclusive electoral reforms to uplift underrepresented groups,
ensuring equity goes beyond social schemes and into the heart of decision-making

1.8.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Minority Welfare

Category Scheme/Act/Provision Details
Constitutional Article 15 Prohibits discrimination based on
Safeguards and religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
Institutional
Frameworks Article 29 & 30 Protects the rights of minorities to
preserve their distinct culture and
establish educational institutions.

National Commission for Established to safeguard and protect the

Minorities (NCM) interests of notified minority
communities.

Ministry of Minority Formed in 2006, oversees policies, plans,

Affairs and programs for the development of
minority communities.
Welfare Schemes Educational Scholarships for minority students
and Initiatives Empowerment through Pre-Matric, Post-Matric, and Merit-
cum-Means Scholarships.
Maulana Azad National Provides support for higher education for

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Student Notes:
Fellowship (MANF) minority students.

Nai Udaan & Naya Savera Free coaching for competitive exams and
skill development for minorities.

Madrasa Modernization Includes schemes like Nai Manzil to bridge

the gap between madrasa education and
the mainstream education system.
Skill Development Seekho Aur Kamao and USTTAD focus on
Economic imparting employable skills and preserving
Empowerment traditional crafts for minorities.
Entrepreneurship NMDFC provides microfinance and loans
Support to minorities for economic empowerment.

Nai Roshni Empowers minority women through

leadership programs.
Social and Cultural Hamari Dharohar Preserves the cultural heritage of
Protection minorities.
Jiyo Parsi Scheme Addresses the declining population of
Parsis.

Waqf Management Includes initiatives for computerization

and financial support for waqf properties.

Pradhan Mantri Jan Vikas Focuses on infrastructure development

Karyakram (PMJVK) in districts with significant minority
populations.

1.9. Differently-Abled Persons (PwDs) in India

Disability is a matter of perception" - Sudha Chandran (Indian classical dancer with
prosthetic leg)
In India, Differently-Abled Persons (PwDs), also known as Persons with Disabilities, are
recognized as a vulnerable section of the population facing systemic disadvantages due to
various physical, social, and economic factors.
• The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons (1975) defines a
disabled person as someone unable to ensure, wholly or partly, the necessities of normal
life due to deficiencies in physical or mental abilities.
• Globally, 1.3 billion people live with disabilities, with a significant portion residing in
developing countries and rural areas.
• As per the 2011 Census, approximately 2.21% of India’s population is affected by one or
more disabilities, the majority of whom live in rural areas.
1.9.1. Key Challenges Faced by Differently-Abled Persons
PwDs in India face numerous challenges due to societal stigma, physical barriers, and systemic
issues:
1. Health Challenges:
• Many disabilities are preventable, resulting from issues like birth complications,
maternal conditions, malnutrition, and accidents.
• PwDs face limited access to affordable healthcare services and essential aids such
as wheelchairs, hearing aids, and prosthetics.

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2. Educational Barriers: Student Notes:
Universal Design: From Barriers to Inclusion
• The education system in India
often lacks inclusivity, with less Universal Design Thinking is an approach that asserts
than 1% of institutions being disability stems from the environment, not the
disabled-friendly. individual.
• Special schools are scarce, and It advocates designing everything to be inherently
there is a lack of trained usable by all, moving beyond mere compliance (like
teachers and suitable ramps) towards truly inclusive solutions from inception.
educational materials, leading Policies must mandate these principles across
to low literacy rates among infrastructure, digital platforms, and education.
PwDs, with 45% of PwDs being This cultivates designers who instinctively create
illiterate. accessible environments, ensuring future spaces and
• For example, only 5% of deaf technologies are built for everyone's equitable use.
children attend school, and
their course structure often does not accommodate their needs.
3. Employment Disparities:
• PwDs face significant employment discrimination, with a lower employment rate
compared to the general population.
• Among the Nifty 50 companies, only five have more than 1% PwDs on their payrolls.
This contributes to their higher incidence of poverty and informality in the workforce.
4. Accessibility Hurdles:
• There are physical barriers in public infrastructure such as buildings, public
transport, and essential services, making it difficult for PwDs to navigate daily life.
• Many services and communications (such as public transport announcements and TV
shows) are inaccessible for Deaf and Hard of Hearing (DHH) individuals due to the lack
of sign language interpreters and other support services.
5. Discrimination and Social Exclusion:
• PwDs face stigma and discrimination, particularly for those with mental illness or
intellectual disabilities. This leads to social exclusion and negative self-perception
among PwDs, further exacerbating their isolation.
6. Lack of Data and Coordination:
• Inconsistencies in disability data across different censuses and lack of standard
reporting mechanisms hinder effective policymaking.
• Moreover, poor coordination between various sectors, ministries, and NGOs impedes
access to relevant data for planning and implementation.

Learning through Example: Empowering the Differently-

Abled: A Global Ripple
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 was a game-
changer in treating disability as a societal issue, not just a
personal challenge. It mandated equal rights and accessibility
in public spaces, jobs, education, and transport.
India took cues from this progressive approach. The Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(RPwD) Act, 2016 reflects similar principles, emphasizing dignity, inclusion, and non-
discrimination.
Key Takeaway:
• Strong legal frameworks can shift societal mindsets and infrastructure toward true
inclusion
• Global examples like the ADA show how legislation can lead to awareness,
accountability, and accessibility
• India must keep strengthening implementation to ensure the law translates into lived
reality for all differently-abled citizens

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1.9.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Their Protection Student Notes:

Category Scheme/Act/Provision Details

Constitutional Preamble Secures justice, liberty, and equality for all
Safeguards and citizens, including PwDs.
Institutional
Article 14 Right to Equality, extends to PwDs.
Frameworks
Article 15 Prohibits discrimination on grounds of
disability.

Article 41 Mandates the provision of right to work,

education, and assistance for PwDs.

Article 46 Directs the State to promote the educational and

economic interests of weaker sections, including
PwDs.

Department of Formed in 2012, focuses on policies and support

Empowerment of for PwDs.
Persons with
Disabilities (DEPwD)
Legal Rights of Persons with Expands definition of disability, provides
Frameworks Disabilities Act, 2016 reservations and ensures accessibility.
(RPwD Act)
Mental Healthcare Act, Provides rights and mental healthcare services
2017 for persons with mental illness.

Marrakesh Treaty Facilitates the production and international

exchange of accessible books for the visually
impaired.
Welfare National Policy for Aims to create an inclusive environment for
Programs and Persons with PwDs by ensuring equal opportunities.
Initiatives Disabilities, 2006
Accessible India Aims to build a barrier-free environment in
Campaign (Sugamya public spaces, transport, and ICT.
Bharat Abhiyan)

Assistance to Disabled Provides financial assistance for aids like

Persons for Purchase of wheelchairs and hearing aids.
Aids and Appliances
(ADIP)

Deendayal Disabled Promotes social justice and empowerment by

Rehabilitation Scheme creating an enabling environment.

Rajiv Gandhi Fellowship Scholarships for PwDs pursuing higher

Scheme/National education like M.Phil. and Ph.D.
Fellowship for Students
with Disabilities (RGMF)

SMILE-75 Initiative Focuses on rehabilitating persons engaged in

begging, providing medical aid, counseling,
education, and skill development.

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Global UN Convention on the India ratified the UNCRPD in 2007, aligning its Student Notes:
Measures India Rights of Persons with national legislation on rights of disabled persons
Supports Disabilities (UNCRPD) with these international principles.
Biwako Millennium A framework for ensuring a barrier-free and
Framework inclusive society for PwDs in Asia.

Incheon Strategy An initiative to realize the rights of PwDs across

Asia and the Pacific.

International Day of Promotes awareness and understanding of

Persons with disability issues globally.
Disabilities

1.10. Transgender Persons in India

"I don't want to be
tolerated; I want to be
celebrated." - Laxmi
Narayan Tripathi
In India, transgender is
an umbrella term which is
defined under the
Transgender
Persons(Protection of
Rights)Act, 2019 as
A "transgender person"
refers to an individual
whose gender does not
align with the gender
assigned at birth.
• This includes trans-
men and trans-
women, whether or
not they have
undergone sex
reassignment surgery, hormone therapy, or other treatments.
• It also includes people with intersex variations, gender-queer individuals, and those with
socio-cultural identities such as kinner, hijra, aravani, and jogta.
India’s transgender population, as per the 2011 Census, is approximately 4.9 lakh (490,000).
1.10.1. Key Challenges Faced by Transgender Persons in India
Transgender individuals face widespread social stigma, marginalization, and discrimination
in several aspects of life, with challenges that are often compounded by caste and gender
intersections.
1. Discrimination and Social Exclusion:
• Transgender people encounter prejudice in employment, housing, healthcare, and
education. 99% of transgender individuals have faced repeated instances of social
rejection, according to a study by the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC).
• Social stigma, homophobia, and transphobia frequently lead to marginalization,
contributing to mental health issues.
• Under- Representation: Given the social stigma and injustice they face, their
participation as an electorate has remained abysmal. They have remained

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underrepresented in decision-making bodies like assembly, Parliament and urban Student Notes:
local bodies.
> Till 2019, only about eight percent of transgender population have registered as
‘Other’ voters and only one percent have exercised their voting right.
> During 2019 polls, ‘Others’ voter count increased by 73 percent, however only 14.6
percent of registered third genders voted.
2. Violence and Abuse:
• High prevalence of violence, including rape, sexual abuse, harassment, and
exploitation.
• Transgender individuals often face family rejection, leading to homelessness.
3. Educational Barriers:
• The education system is unequipped to handle transgender students, leading to high
dropout rates.
> Almost 60% of transgender persons never attended school due to harassment
from both peers and teachers.

4. Employment Disparities:
• Transgender individuals experience widespread unemployment despite
qualifications, with 89% facing employment challenges.
• Many are pushed into professions such as prostitution or begging for survival.
5. Health Challenges:
• Transgenders face discrimination in healthcare, making it difficult to access essential
medical care.
• They are more susceptible to HIV/AIDS, with a prevalence rate of 3.1% among
transgenders in India (2017).
• Mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and suicidal tendencies are
prevalent.
6. Accessibility Barriers:
• Lack of gender-neutral or separate transgender toilets and barriers to public
transport and healthcare facilities prevent full societal participation.

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7. Legal and Policy Gaps: Student Notes:
• Enforcement of the Transgender Persons(Protection of Rights)Act, 2019 has not been
adequate.
• Transgender Persons often face challenges with obtaining consistent identification
documents, leading to Legal Identification concerns.

Learning through Example: Lessons for

Transgender Inclusion
In 2012, Argentina became a global pioneer with
its Gender Identity Law, allowing individuals to
legally change their gender based on self-
identification—without medical or
psychological requirements. This marked a
major victory for transgender rights and dignity.
But the story didn’t end there. Despite the progressive law, trans persons in Argentina
continue to struggle for formal employment, revealing a gap between legal recognition
and economic inclusion.
Key Takeaway:
• Legal reforms are vital, but economic and social integration must follow
• India’s similar challenge is stark—over 92% of transgender people remain in informal
work
• The next step in empowerment must include affirmative hiring, education access, and
skill development, so rights on paper translate into real opportunity and dignity

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1.10.2. Government Schemes and Policies for Protection and Welfare Student Notes:

Category Scheme/Act/Provision Details

Constitutional Preamble Ensures justice, liberty, and equality for all
Safeguards citizens, including transgender individuals.
Article 14 Guarantees equality before the law for all
citizens.

Article 15 & 16 Prohibits discrimination based on sex, caste,

creed, or religion.

Article 21 Right to life and personal liberty for all citizens,

including transgender persons.

Article 23 Prohibits forced labor and human trafficking,

ensuring personal dignity.
Legal NALSA v. Union of Recognized the third gender and affirmed
Frameworks and India Judgment (2014) constitutional rights of transgender persons.
Judicial
Navtej Singh Johar v. Decriminalized same-sex relationships,
Interventions
Union of India (2018) striking down part of Section 377 of the IPC.

Transgender Persons Prohibits discrimination in education,

(Protection of Rights) employment, healthcare, and access to public
Act, 2019 goods.

Recognizes self-perceived gender identity,

allowing transgender persons to self-identify.

Establishes the National Council for

Transgender Persons (NCTP) to address
grievances.

National Council for Constituted by MoSJE under Transgender Persons

Transgender (NCT) (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019. It consists of
Persons: Chairperson (Union Minister of MoSJE- ex-
officio), Vice- Chairperson (Union Minister of
State for SJE- ex-officio).

National Portal for Launched in consonance with Transgender

Transgender Persons Persons (Protection of Rights) Rules, 2020, it
would help transgender community in digitally
applying for a certificate and identity card from
anywhere in the country.

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Welfare Department of Coordinates policy formulation and support for Student Notes:
Programs and Empowerment of PwDs and transgender persons.
Initiatives Persons with
Disabilities
(Divyangjan)
Garima Greh Shelter homes provide food, clothing, recreation,
and skill development for transgender persons.

SMILE Scheme Comprehensive rehabilitation for transgender

persons through skill training, housing, and
healthcare.

Ayushman Bharat TG Provides health insurance coverage of ₹5 lakh

Plus annually for transgender persons, including
coverage for gender-affirmation surgeries

PM-DAKSH (Pradhan MoSJE is imparting skill development training to

Mantri - Dakshta Aur Transgender beneficiaries of SMILE Scheme
Kushalta Sampann through PM-DAKSH- skill development scheme of
Hitgrahi) MoSJE

Yogyakarta Principles: Affirming Universal Rights for

LGBTQ+ Persons
The Yogyakarta Principles (YP) are a set of 29 principles
aimed at affirming the human rights of individuals with
diverse sexual orientations and gender identities.
These principles were adopted in Yogyakarta,
Indonesia, in 2006, with signatories from various
countries, including India, the USA, and the UK. In 2017,
the YP Plus 10 was adopted in Geneva, Switzerland, to
further strengthen these rights.
These principles are binding international standards
that apply to all individuals, ensuring equality and non-
discrimination based on sexual orientation, gender
identity, gender expression, and sex characteristics.
They highlight the universal rights of LGBTQ+ persons, demanding that all states comply
with these standards to promote equality, dignity, and protection from violence and
discrimination.

1.11. Assessment of Government Schemes & Policies for Vulnerable

Sections
The Government of India (GoI) aims to enhance the welfare and upliftment of various
vulnerable groups, such as children, women, the elderly, persons with disabilities, SCs,
STs, minorities, migrants, and those living in poverty. However, despite these efforts, the
schemes and policies have not yielded the expected outcomes due to several limitations
and challenges, which have undermined the effectiveness of these initiatives.

Effectiveness: Tangible Strides Limitations: Persistent Bottlenecks

Towards Inclusivity Hindering Full Potential
The cumulative impact of these schemes Despite the scale of ambition, several

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Student Notes:
has been significant, demonstrating the systemic issues continue to dilute the
state's expanding role as a welfare effectiveness and reach of these welfare
provider and a catalyst for more inclusive initiatives.
development.
• Implementation Gaps & Bureaucratic
• Poverty Reduction: Welfare Hurdles: Last-mile delivery remains
programs have been instrumental in problematic, often due to complex
lifting millions out of poverty by procedures, corruption, and insufficient
providing direct support and ground-level capacity.
opportunities. o Example: Historically, delays in
o Example: NITI Aayog's scholarship disbursement (e.g.,
Multidimensional Poverty Index Post-Matric Scholarships for SCs)
(MPI) 2024 report indicated that have been a persistent issue, leading
24.82 crore people moved out to student dropouts.
of multidimensional poverty in • Awareness Deficit & Accessibility
the last 9 years, because of the Barriers: Many eligible beneficiaries,
impact of various welfare especially in remote or marginalized
programs like Pradhan Mantri communities, remain unaware of
Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) and schemes or face difficulties accessing
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana services.
(PMAY). o Example: A Supreme Court ruling in
• Financial Inclusion & DBT April 2025 highlighted that digital KYC
Efficiency: Universal access to processes (e.g., facial recognition)
banking has empowered exclude visually impaired or acid
vulnerable groups and attack survivors.
revolutionized subsidy delivery, o Elderly (Scheme Awareness): A July
reducing leakages. 2024 HelpAge India report found that
o Example: PMJDY has opened one in three elders had no income in
over 55.69 crore bank accounts the past year, and only 29% accessed
as of June 25, 2025 (PIB, 2025), a social security schemes, indicating
significant portion belonging to widespread unawareness of existing
women and rural poor, enabling benefits.
efficient Direct Benefit • Insufficient Funding & Meagre Benefits:
Transfers (DBTs) and ensuring While budgets are large, the actual
money reaches beneficiaries. quantum of financial support or
• Enhanced Social Security & Health resource allocation inadequate for
Protection: Critical safety nets for dignified living or comprehensive
food security, health, and basic development.
income support have reduced o Example: The 2025 Union Budget
vulnerability to shocks. maintained the National Social
o Example: The National Food Assistance Programme (NSAP)
Security Act (NFSA) ensures allocation stagnant at ₹9,652 crore,
highly subsidized food grains for meaning the central contribution to
over 80 crore beneficiaries old-age pensions (₹200-500) has not
(PIB, 2025). increased since 2007, eroding real
o Ayushman Bharat - PMJAY value due to inflation.
provides health coverage up to • Lack of Inter-sectoral Convergence:
₹5 lakh/family/year, with over Schemes often operate in silos, leading to
41.34 crore Ayushman Cards fragmentation of effort, reduced
issued as of July 3, 2025 (PIB, efficiency, and failure to provide holistic
2025), drastically reducing out- support.
of-pocket health expenditures o Example: Despite the comprehensive
for the poor. mandate of Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS), actual

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Student Notes:
• Empowerment of Specific Groups: convergence with health and
Targeted interventions have education departments at the
demonstrably improved socio- ground level remains poor in many
economic indicators and legal Anganwadi Centres, affecting holistic
protections for historically child development.
marginalized communities. • Data Reliability & Monitoring
o Example: Beti Bachao Beti Weaknesses: While data collection is
Padhao (BBBP) contributed to improving, robust, real-time, and
the improvement of the Sex outcome-based monitoring is often
Ratio at Birth (SRB) from 918 lacking, hindering effective evaluation
(2014-15) to 930 (2023-24) (PIB, and course correction.
MWCD 2024). o Example: While the e-Shram portal
o The Forest Rights Act (FRA) has has registered 28.97 crore
recognized over 20 lakh unorganised workers (IJLSI, Jan
individual and 1.15 lakh 2025), ensuring seamless linkage of
community forest rights titles all registered workers to relevant
(Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2024), social security benefits and tracking
empowering tribal communities. their actual access remains a
significant challenge.

Suggestions for Enhancement: Towards a More Equitable Future

To fully unlock the potential of India's welfare architecture, a focus on systemic reforms and
learning from best practices is essential.
• Strengthen Last-Mile Delivery & Digital Governance: Leverage technology to
simplify processes and ensure accountability, while simultaneously strengthening
human capital at the grassroots.
o Example: Implement real-time, blockchain-enabled DBT systems to ensure
transparent and tamper-proof delivery, as explored in some pilot projects. "Digital
India" initiatives, if fully leveraged with adequate digital literacy programs, can
significantly bridge the last-mile gap.
• Enhance Awareness & Community Participation: Move beyond top-down
communication to foster genuine community ownership and awareness.
o Case Study: Replicate Kerala's "Janamaithri Suraksha Project" where community
beat policing fosters trust and local participation in crime prevention and
dissemination of welfare information. Community resource persons from National
Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) Self-Help Groups (SHGs) could also be trained
as welfare scheme facilitators, as seen in parts of Andhra Pradesh.
• Rationalize Benefits & Ensure Adequacy: Periodically review and adjust benefit
amounts to align with living costs and ensure a dignified existence, while expanding
eligibility where genuinely needed.
o Best Practice: Study models like Brazil's Bolsa Familia, which links cash
transfers to conditions like school attendance and health check-ups, ensuring
multi-dimensional impact and adequate support, rather than just minimal aid.
• Foster Inter-Ministerial Convergence: Break down silos through integrated planning
frameworks and shared platforms to ensure holistic development.
o Example : Implement "NITI Aayog-style" multi-sectoral working groups at state
and district levels, with clear mandates for convergence, inspired by the success of
coordinated efforts during the initial phases of the Swachh Bharat Mission.
• Robust Outcome-Based Monitoring & Evaluation: Shift focus from mere expenditure
to actual impact on beneficiaries' lives, using data for continuous learning and
adaptation.
o Best Practice: Adopt models similar to the Aspirational Districts Programme,
which uses real-time data dashboards and competitive federalism to track key

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Student Notes:
performance indicators (KPIs) across various development sectors, encouraging
districts to learn from each other.
• Address Structural Inequities & Discrimination: Strengthen legal enforcement
against discrimination and couple welfare with direct economic empowerment
initiatives.
o Case Study: Learn from Colombia's "Resource Curse" management, which,
despite complexities, aimed for royalty-sharing with local communities in mining
zones to address resource exploitation. Similarly, ensuring full implementation of
the PESA Act and FRA in tribal areas, empowering Gram Sabhas, can prevent
alienation.
o Counter "Exclusion in Urban Economies": Implement strong anti-discrimination
laws in hiring and housing in urban areas, similar to those in developed economies.
Promote inclusive incubation centers and mentorship programs specifically for
entrepreneurs from vulnerable groups in urban settings, beyond just providing initial
capital.

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UNIT 2: ISSUES RELATING TO DEVELOPMENT AND Student Notes:

MANAGEMENT OF SOCIAL SECTOR

PYQ Analysis and Insights
Unit 2 of Social Justice focuses on issues relating to development and management of the
social sector, with special attention to health, education, and human resource
development. Based on our detailed analysis of Previous Year Questions (PYQs) from 2013
to 2024, we have identified key insights for Mains 2025. These insights highlight the core areas
of concern within this unit, particularly focusing on the challenges and opportunities related to
public healthcare, education reforms, and human resource development. We’ve also
provided guidance on how to address questions by examining policy effectiveness,
implementation challenges, and future reforms in these sectors.
By combining this structured deconstruction with the VAM material, you will be well-prepared
to write targeted and comprehensive answers, maximizing your score in GS Paper 2.

Question Type PYQs Insights for Mains 2025

Critical • (2022): "The Right of Children to Free What to focus on:

assessment of and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
• Critical analysis of policy/law
existing remains inadequate in promoting an
effectiveness.
policies/laws, incentive-based system for children's
• Awareness of gaps between
their design, education without generating
intent and ground reality.
outcomes & awareness about the importance of
alignment with • Balanced judgment
schooling. Analyse."
goals (successes vs. failures).
• (2020): "National Education Policy
• Understanding of global
2020 is in conformity with the
benchmarks (SDGs/MDGs)
Sustainable Development Goal-4
(2030). It intends to restructure and
reorient the education system in
India. Critically examine the
statement."
• (2013): "Identify the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) that are
related to health. Discuss the
success of the actions taken by the
Government for achieving the same."

Identify • (2024): "In a crucial domain like the What to focus on:
systemic public healthcare system, the Indian
• Diagnosis of root causes
inadequacies State should play a vital role in
behind failures.
and propose containing the adverse impact of
• Practical, context-specific
concrete marketisation. Suggest measures
solutions.
corrective through which the State can enhance
measures. • Structured prioritization (e.g.,
the reach of public healthcare at the
governance/finance/tech
grassroots level."
reforms).
• (2023): "The crucial aspect of the
• Innovative yet feasible ideas
development process has been the
(e.g., PPP models, skill-
inadequate attention paid to Human
integration).
Resource Development in India.
Suggest measures that can address
this inadequacy."

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• (2021): "‘Earn while you learn’ Student Notes:
scheme needs to be strengthened to
make vocational education and skill
training meaningful. Comment."
• (2016): "Professor Amartya Sen has
advocated important reforms in the
realms of primary education and
primary health care. What are your
suggestions to improve their status
and performance?"

Argue • (2021): "Besides being a moral What to focus on:

theoretical/ethi imperative of a Welfare State, primary
• Holistic understanding (e.g.,
cal health structure is a necessary
health → economic growth).
connections precondition for sustainable
• Logical argumentation with
between social development." Analyse.
ethical/economic lenses.
sectors and • (2020): "In order to enhance the
macro-goals • Interdisciplinary linkages
prospects of social development,
(welfare, (e.g., health equity → social
sound and adequate health care
sustainability, justice).
policies are needed particularly in the
equity) • Emphasis on rights-based
fields of geriatric and maternal health
approaches.
care. Discuss."
• (2018): "Appropriate local
community-level healthcare
intervention is a prerequisite to
achieve 'Health for All' in India.
Explain."

Focus on • (2024): "In a crucial domain like the What to focus on:
operational public healthcare system... Suggest
• Grassroots challenges
mechanisms, measures through which the State
(access, infrastructure,
decentralizatio can enhance the reach of public
awareness).
n, and healthcare at the grassroots level."
• Role of local actors (PRIs,
community- (Note: Explicit grassroots focus)
ASHAs, NGOs).
level delivery. • (2018): "Appropriate local
• Decentralized governance
community-level healthcare
models.
intervention is a prerequisite to
• Context-specific innovations
achieve 'Health for All' in India.
(e.g., mobile clinics,
Explain."
telemedicine).

1. Part A: Health
The WHO defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
The determinants of good health are:
• Access to various types of health services,
• An individual’s lifestyle choices,
• Personal, family and social relationships.

Healthcare in the Constitution of India

Fundamental Rights (Part Ill)
• Article 21: Right to life, including health, as per Supreme Court.

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Directive Principles of State Policy Student Notes:
• Article 39(e): Health of workers.
• Article 41: Assistance for sick and disabled.
• Article 42: Maternity benefits.
• Article 47: Nutrition, living standards, public health.
• Article 48A: Pollution-free environment for health.
Right to Health: The Supreme Court has often affirmed the Right to Health under Article
21 as a fundamental right. Important Cases in this context include CESC Ltd. vs. Subash
Chandra Bose, Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity, Murali S. Deora, and N. D. Jayal.

1.1. Healthcare Infrastructure in India

1.1.1. India’s Health Profile: Key Indicators

The National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019-21) and Sample Registration System (SRS)
data reveal key health metrics for India:
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR): 2.0 (below the replacement level).
• Contraceptive Prevalence Rate: 67%.
• Institutional Deliveries: Increased to 88.6%, reaching 91.1% in 2021.
• Full Immunization: Improved to 76.4%.
• Anaemia Prevalence: High among women (57%) and children (67.1%).
• Child Malnutrition: Stunting at 35.5%, underweight at 32.1%, and wasting at 19.3%.

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• Dual-Disease Burden: Student Notes:
India faces both
communicable
diseases (e.g.,
tuberculosis) and a
rising prevalence of
non-communicable
diseases (e.g.,
diabetes,
hypertension).

1.2. Challenges to
India's Healthcare
Ecosystem
• Low Public
Expenditure: India
spends 1.8% of GDP
(2021-22) on
healthcare, below WHO's 5% recommendation.
• High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure: While the OOPE for India has declined from 64% in 2013
to 39% in 2021, still around 70% rural and 80% urban populations use private facilities,
leading to high personal expenses (World Bank) .
• Rising Costs of Treatment: Increased public spending, but affordability remains a concern;
cancer treatment can push families into debt (Public Health Foundation of India, 2022) .
• Limited Health Insurance Coverage: Health insurance sector growing at 12.8% CAGR
(2024–2028), yet coverage gaps persist. Over 80% of the population lacks health insurance,
increasing financial vulnerability (FICCI report 2022) .
• Inadequate Infrastructure: India has 1.3 hospital beds per 1000 population, compared to
China's 2.3 and the US's 3.2 (2018) .
• Human Resource Crunch: Shortage of over 8 lakh doctors and 24 lakh nurses despite
meeting WHO's doctor ratio (NITI Aayog, 2021).

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1.3. Addressing Challenges to Issues in Healthcare Student Notes:

For Strengthening Primary Health Care in For Strengthening Secondary Health Care
India in India
Srinath Reddy Committee Report • District Health Plan: Develop a
Recommendations comprehensive plan addressing bed
availability (NHP 2017 targets), surgical
• Increased Public Spending: Allocate at
capacity (4520 surgeries per 100,000
least 70% of healthcare budget to
population), and emergency
primary care, aligning with WHO's 50%
preparedness (serving 15% of the
recommendation.
population).
• Expanding Workforce and
• Urban Peripheral Hospitals: Establish
Infrastructure: Increase healthcare
100-150 bedded government hospitals
professionals, especially in rural areas;
for every 3 lakh population in urban areas
establish an "all-India service of public
to enhance secondary care.
health workers" like Tamil Nadu.
• Human Resource Development:
• New Medical and Nursing Schools:
Implement NITI Aayog's PPP model by
Establish more schools to address
linking private medical colleges with
workforce gaps.
district hospitals to increase medical
seats, specialist availability, and provide
Successful Models practical training for students in real-
world settings.
• Cuba's Decentralized Care:
Case Study:
Community-based polyclinics and
neighborhood family doctor-and-nurse • Kenya's successful PPP model for
offices serve populations of 30,000- staffing public hospitals with qualified
60,000, fostering community professionals demonstrates the
relationships. potential of this strategy.
• Thailand's Health System: By heavily • Colombia's successful public-private
investing in primary care through its partnerships for building and managing
Health Insurance System (HIS), Thailand hospitals showcases the potential of
achieved Universal Health Coverage attracting private investment for
(UHC) with low GDP spending (around expanding healthcare access.
4.5%).

Common Strategies for Strengthening for overall Health Care in India

• Leveraging Technology:
o Telemedicine: Offers remote consultations and specialist support in rural areas.
> Example: Rwanda's telemedicine connects rural centers with urban specialists.
o Health Information Exchange (HIE): Enables sharing of patient data between PHCs
and secondary facilities to improve care coordination.
> Example: HIE systems in the US reduce medical errors and test duplications.
o Mobile Health (mHealth): Uses mobile technology for appointment reminders and
medication adherence.
> Example: Singapore's mHealth initiatives enhance patient care.
• Decentralized Institutions: Involve SHGs, PRIs, ANMs, and ASHAs to create teams for
basic care, health awareness, and referrals in rural areas.
o Example: Ethiopia's Health Extension Program improves access to basic healthcare
with trained health workers in rural communities.
• Increasing Insurance Coverage: Expand health insurance to improve access to
secondary care and reduce financial hardships.
o Example: Ghana's National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) enhances healthcare
access through expanded insurance coverage.

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1.4. Burden of Disease & Key Health Issues in India Student Notes:

India faces a complex health landscape

shaped by multiple, overlapping challenges.
These include rising non-communicable
diseases, persistent communicable
diseases, and widespread mental health
concerns.
1.4.1. Communicable Diseases
1. Tuberculosis (TB)
• India’s TB Burden: India accounts
for 27% of the global TB burden. In
2023, 25.1 lakh TB cases were
reported in India.
• Government Initiatives: The
National TB Elimination
Programme (NTEP) aims for TB
elimination by 2025 (ahead of the
global target of 2030). The Nikshay
Poshan Yojana provides nutritional
support to TB patients.
• Challenges: Long treatment regimens, drug resistance, and poor access to
advanced diagnostics in rural areas remain significant hurdles. Poverty and poor living
conditions exacerbate transmission of TB.
2. AIDS/HIV
• National Goals: The 90-90-90 India's Progress in the Fight Against AIDS
goal (achieving 95-95-95 by
2025) aims for: On World AIDS Day 2024, the theme "Take the Rights
Path" was emphasized, focusing on equal rights and
o 95% of HIV-positive
healthcare access for those affected by HIV/AIDS.
people are diagnosed.
o 95% of diagnosed India's efforts have significantly reduced the HIV
individuals on ART (Anti epidemic, with new infections in 2023 almost 44% lower
Retroviral Therapy) than in 2010, surpassing the global reduction rate. AIDS-
o 95% of ART patients related deaths declined by 79%.
achieve viral India aims to eradicate epidemic diseases, including
suppression. AIDS, by 2030.
• Important Initiatives for The nation has adopted the 95-95-95 target(updated
Eradication of AIDS: Since over the 90-90-90 Plan of UNAIDS).
2004, free ART has been Current Status as per MoHFW: 81% of cases identified,
provided to patients suffering 88% receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART), and 97% of
from AIDS. The fifth phase of identified people having their viral load suppressed.
the National AIDS Control
India has become a net supplier of affordable and
Programme (NACP) targets
effective HIV medicines globally, providing them for free.
80% reduction in new HIV A state within India also aims to end AIDS as a public
infections and AIDS-related health threat by 2028.
deaths.
• Challenges: Delays in ART
initiation, non-compliance, and the need for integration with other health programs
(e.g., hepatitis, NCDs).
1.4.2. Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)
India faces a dual-disease burden with a rising prevalence of lifestyle diseases such as
cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer, alongside persistent communicable
diseases.

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• Dominant Causes of Mortality: NCDs Student Notes:
Fighting Obesity by Reducing Oil Intake
account for over 60% of all deaths. By 2030,
they are projected to cause 75% of deaths. Recently the Prime Minister during his Mann
• Economic Impact: NCDs are expected to Ki Baat address, urged citizens to reduce
monthly edible oil consumption by 10% to
cost India $6 trillion by 2030.
combat rising obesity, especially among
• Key Risk Factors: Unhealthy diets, sedentary
families.
lifestyles, and aging are driving the increase in
obesity and NCD prevalence. Citing support from athletes Neeraj Chopra
and Nikhat Zareen, he emphasized how
Policy Strategies to control NCDs: small lifestyle changes can lead to significant
health benefits.
• India Hypertension Control Initiative (IHCI)
and WHO’s SHAKE the Salt Habit program
aim to reduce salt consumption and manage diabetes and hypertension.
• Multi-sectoral efforts are focused on preventing NCDs, promoting active lifestyles, and
nutritional literacy.

Universal Immunisation and U-WIN Portal

Universal Immunization is a public health program providing free or subsidized vaccinations
to all children, ensuring protection against preventable diseases.

The U-WIN portal is a digital platform under India’s Universal Immunisation Programme,
aimed at digitizing vaccination records for pregnant women and children up to 16 years.
• It offers self-registration, flexible scheduling, SMS reminders, QR-based e-
certificates, and links to Ayushman Bharat Health Accounts (ABHA).
• The portal supports multilingual access in 11 languages and enables anytime,
anywhere vaccination.
• As of November 2024, U-WIN had registered 7.44 crore beneficiaries, conducted 1.26
crore sessions, and tracked over 27 crore vaccine doses.
• By early November, 1.7 crore pregnant women and 5.4 crore children were digitally
enrolled.

1.4.3. Mental Healthcare

WHO defines Mental health in a holistic method as:
A state of mental well-being that enables people to cope with the stresses of life, realize their
abilities, learn well, work well, and contribute to their community. It is an integral component of
health, underpinning individual and collective decision-making, relationships, and world-

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shaping capacities. Student Notes:
Mental health is a
basic human right
crucial to personal,
community, and socio-
economic
development.
India is said to have a
pervasive mental
health crisis:
• 1 in 7 people are
affected by mental
illness, yet 80%
lack access to
treatment.
• The suicide rate remains high, with 1.30 lakh suicides reported in 2019.
• Challenges include stigma, lack of professionals (0.75 psychologists per lakh population),

and poor utilization of mental health budgets.

Strategies for handling Mental Health Crisis

• Increase public spending on health to 2.5% of GDP by 2025, and allocate proportionately
to Mental Healthcare
• Strengthen primary healthcare and develop district health plans for Mental Healthcare
• Address socioeconomic determinants of mental health such as poverty and
discrimination.

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• Key Government Initiatives: Student Notes:
Mental Health Abuse: Chaining Continues
o KIRAN Helpline: Provides
early screening, first-aid, A grim reality persists in rural India (UP/Bihar): people
psychological support, and with mental illnesses are chained, often in facilities
stress management. disguised as "de-addiction centers." This represents a
o Tele MANAS: Offers free tele- severe human rights violation, fueled by pervasive
stigma and a critical absence of formal mental healthcare
mental health services
facilities.
across the country, 24/7.
o MANODARPAN: Provides This highlights an urgent systemic failure. Beyond mere
psychosocial support to confinement, comprehensive reform, including stringent
students. regulation and expanded access to humane treatment, is
o National Mental Health essential to eradicate such abusive practices and ensure
dignified care for all with mental illness.
Programme and 'REDS' path
for suicide prevention.
1.4.3.1. Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 MindTech Vital Role in Bridging the
Gap
• Provides affordable, accessible The MindTech Gap reveals India's dire
mental healthcare services for mental health crisis: with only 0.75
individuals with mental health psychiatrists per 100,000 people,
issues. access to care is severely limited. AI
• Decriminalization of suicide therapists like Wysa are stepping in,
attempts for mentally ill individuals. having handled over 1 billion chats,
• Treatment Gap: 80% treatment offering crucial mental health support
gap in mental health, compounded where human resources are scarce.
by inadequate funding and a
shortage of professionals.

Challenges In Implementing Mental Healthcare Act:

• Stigma: Mental health continues to be stigmatized, hindering access to care.
• Shortage of Professionals: India has 0.3 psychiatrists per 100,000 people, far below the
required ratio.
• Accessibility: Limited services in rural areas, with a focus on urban centers.

Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) in India: A Simple Overview

A Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) is a measure that combines two factors:
• Years of Life Lost (YLL): Due to premature death.
• Years Lived with Disability (YLD): Due to living with illness or disability.

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Student Notes:
One DALY equals one lost year of "healthy" life. It helps to understand the total burden of
disease on a population. 14.1 Million DALYs were lost in 2020 due to COVID-19, with urban
areas and men being more affected.
Key Insights on DALY in India
1. National Trends
• DALY Rate Decline: India’s DALY rate dropped by 36% from 1990 to 2016, showing
overall health improvements. However, inequalities remain across states.
• Shift in Disease Burden: Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like heart disease,
diabetes, and cancer, along with injuries, are now the leading causes of DALYs.
Infectious diseases still affect poorer states.
2. Leading Causes of DALYs
• NCDs (heart disease, diabetes, cancers, etc.) are now the top causes.
• Injuries, including road accidents and suicides, have also increased as contributors.
• Infectious diseases still remain a significant burden in poorer states.
3. Major Risk Factors
• Top Risks: Undernutrition, air pollution, unhealthy diet, high blood pressure, and
obesity are leading risk factors.
• Wealthier states transitioned to NCDs earlier, while poorer states still struggle with
infectious diseases.

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1.5. Key Government Schemes & Missions on Healthcare Student Notes:

1.5.1. National Health Policy (2017)

The National Health Policy 2017 emphasizes universal health coverage (UHC), prioritizing
primary healthcare, prevention, and health promotion. Key features and data of the policy are
shown in the infographic below

1.5.2. Ayushman Bharat

Ayushman Bharat is a flagship health initiative launched by the Government of India in 2018,
with the objective of achieving universal health coverage (UHC) and providing comprehensive
healthcare services to all citizens. It aims to reduce the financial burden of healthcare and
ensure affordable, accessible services for the population, with a strong focus on wellness.
Key Components of Ayushman Bharat Scheme
• Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs): Also known as Ayushman Arogya Mandirs (AAMs),
these centers are designed to bring healthcare closer to people’s homes. The goal is to
establish 1.5 lakh centers, offering primary healthcare services.
• Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY): PMJAY is a comprehensive health insurance
scheme targeting over 10 crore poor and vulnerable families, providing ₹5 lakh per family
for secondary and tertiary care hospitalization. Key features include:

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o Coverage of pre-existing Student Notes:
Recent Updates to PM-JAY Scheme
diseases from the day of
enrollment. Scheme benefits extended to 37 lakh ASHA workers and
o Cashless and paperless Anganwadi workers.
services at empanelled Elderly individuals (aged 70+), regardless of income or pre-
hospitals across India. existing conditions, benefitting approximately 6 crore
o Portability across the elderly people, especially women (58% of elderly).
country, allowing PMJAY merged the earlier Rashtriya Swasthya Bima
beneficiaries to access Yojana (RSBY), which had been covering vulnerable
services anywhere. sections since 2008.

Ayushman Bharat faces key challenges such as:

• Inaccurate beneficiary databases, with over 50% grievances linked to registration issues.
• Its narrow coverage excludes outpatient and elderly care, while infrastructure gaps in rural
areas limit access.
• Variable care quality and budget shortfalls further hinder its effectiveness.
To improve outcomes, the scheme could ensure physical verification of hospitals, timely
payments, and strong anti-fraud measures. Establishing district grievance units and
designing policies for long-term elderly care are crucial.

Health Insurance in India: Progress and Persistent Gaps

Health insurance in India has grown significantly in recent years, emerging as a vital tool for
financial protection against rising healthcare costs. By 2023, 40% of India’s population
was insured, with projections estimating coverage to reach 50% by 2025. Government
schemes like Ayushman Bharat–PMJAY, which now covers over 55 crore people, have
driven this expansion. Yet, out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE) continues to be among the
highest globally, undermining the effectiveness of health insurance and exposing millions to
medical impoverishment.
Key Features of India’s Health Insurance Ecosystem
• Ayushman Bharat–PMJAY: Covers the poorest 40% of the population, recently extended
to all citizens aged 70+.
• State-level schemes: Telangana (Rajiv Aarogyasri), Tamil Nadu (CMCHIS), and others
complement central coverage.

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Student Notes:
• Private sector participation: Offers tax benefits (under Section 80D) and growing urban
adoption.
• Digital push: Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission aims to unify health records and
improve service delivery.
Challenges: Why Health Insurance Hasn't Reduced OOPE Enough
• OOPE still high: Despite growing coverage, 47.1% of total health expenditure in 2021–22
was OOPE (down from 62.6% in 2014–15).
• Exclusions: Many plans don’t cover outpatient care, diagnostics, or medicines—main
contributors to OOPE.
• Affordability barriers: Premiums, co-payments, and lack of cashless services affect
low-income households.
• Awareness and digital literacy: Rural and underprivileged groups often remain unaware
or unable to enrol.
• Claim process inefficiencies: Delays, rejections, and opaque procedures erode public
trust.
Way Forward
• Expand coverage scope: Include outpatient services, medicines, and preventive care
under standard policies.
• Subsidize premiums for the poor and informal sector workers.
• Invest in public health infrastructure to reduce dependence on costly private providers.
• Regulate claim processes and ensure transparency and standardization in policy
terms.
• Boost awareness through mass campaigns and local facilitation centers, especially in
rural areas.
Health insurance in India has made important strides but remains insufficiently protective
due to design flaws, gaps in access, and persistent OOPE. To truly achieve Universal Health
Coverage, India must reorient its insurance ecosystem toward inclusivity, affordability, and
comprehensive care.

1.5.3. National Medical Commission (NMC)

The National Medical Commission (NMC) replaced the Medical Council of India (MCI) to
regulate medical education and healthcare standards.

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Challenges of NMC: Student Notes:
• Lack of diverse stakeholders in decision-making, with limited representation from public
health experts.
• Limited state involvement in decision-making, reducing local participation in health
reforms.
• Focus on documentation rather than quality education.
1.5.4. Human Resources for Health (HRH)
India faces a critical shortage of healthcare professionals, particularly in rural areas. According
to NITI Aayog’s 2021 report, there is a deficit of over 8 lakh doctors and 24 lakh nurses. The
imbalance is exacerbated by the concentration of professionals in urban centers, resulting in
inadequate healthcare access in rural regions.
Efforts to address these gaps include:
• Expanding medical and nursing schools.
• Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) to strengthen healthcare delivery.
• Improved rural postings for medical professionals.

Addressing Human Resource Issues with ASHA and Anganwadi Workers

Category ASHAs (Accredited Social Anganwadi Workers

Health Activists)

• Community health
Role Central to Early Childhood Care and
workers serve as the first Education (ECCE), providing nutrition and
point of contact for rural health services under the ICDS scheme.
populations.
• Focus on maternal health,
immunization, and family
planning.

Number Over 9 lakh ASHAs across Work in Anganwadi centers under ICDS, but
India, including urban areas no specific number is mentioned here.
under the National Urban Health
Mission (NUHM).

• Inadequate recognition and • Shortage of trained workers

Challenges
compensation • Lack of basic sanitation and play
• Heavy workload and facilities
insufficient training • Limited resources for early childhood
• Lack of safety and support education and care.
mechanisms

Transforming India’s Healthcare Workforce

Over the last decade, India has undertaken major reforms to expand and strengthen its
healthcare workforce. Key efforts have focused on increasing capacity, improving
educational quality, and reducing rural–urban disparities.
• Healthcare workforce size has grown to nearly 1 crore, including:
o 13.9 lakh doctors, 7.5 lakh AYUSH practitioners,
o 39.4 lakh nurses (largest segment), and 17.6 lakh pharmacists.
o The doctor-population ratio now meets the WHO norm of 1:1000.
• Medical and nursing education expansion:
o Medical colleges increased from 387 (2014) to 780 (2024) — a 102% rise.

Student Notes:
o MBBS seats grew from 51,000 to 1.18 lakh (130% increase).
o PG seats expanded from 32,000 to 74,000 (135% increase).
o B.Sc. Nursing institutions grew by 45%, with a 53% rise in seats.
o M.Sc. Nursing saw a 29% increase in institutions and 39% in seats.
• Addressing rural disparities:
o New medical colleges are set up in rural areas to improve access and train local
health workers.
• Innovative initiatives:
o Over 1.25 lakh Community Health Officers (CHOs) have deployed at Ayushman
Arogya Mandirs since 2018 to deliver primary care, elderly care, and NCD
services.
• Regulatory reforms introduced:
o New acts for medical, nursing, and dental education to improve transparency and
standards.
• Focus on quality:
o Implementation of Competency-Based Medical Education (CBME).
o Introduction of District Residency Program for PG students in public hospitals.
o Use of digital tools and simulation labs for training.
India’s decadal healthcare workforce reform has focused on capacity building, quality
education, and rural outreach. Continued efforts are needed in specialty training and allied
health professional development.
Contemporary Issues: Violence Against Healthcare Workers
• Prevalence: Reports show that 75% of doctors in India face violence. The causes
include low patient satisfaction, poor doctor-patient communication, and
inadequate security.
• Solutions: The Epidemic Diseases (Amendment) Act, 2020 provides legal protection to
healthcare workers during pandemics, with severe penalties for violence. A
comprehensive law beyond epidemics is needed to ensure long-term protection for
healthcare professionals.
India’s healthcare system faces multifaceted challenges related to financing, infrastructure,
and human resources. To achieve Universal Health Coverage by 2030, India needs to
increase public health expenditure, strengthen primary healthcare, and address mental
health and NCDs effectively.

1.5.5. Pandemic Preparedness and the 'One Health' Approach

The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the
weaknesses in global health systems and
vaccine inequities. The WHO's Global Pandemic
Treaty aims to ensure equitable access to health
products in future pandemics.
One Health Approach:
The 'One Health' approach connects human
health, animal health, and the environment.
• Many diseases, like COVID-19, start in animals
and spread to people.
• It aims to prevent zoonotic diseases and antibiotic resistance by encouraging
collaboration across sectors.
• With 'One Health', doctors, veterinarians, and environmental experts work together to
identify risks early.

o This teamwork Student Notes:
KARMI-Bot: A COVID-Era Innovation
improves
surveillance, Kerala's KARMI-Bot was initially
shares developed to serve COVID-19 patients
information, and by delivering food and medicine. Its
stops diseases at primary aim was to reduce healthcare
their source. Clean workers' exposure and conserve PPE,
water, safe food, highlighting robotics' potential in
infection control during crises.
and healthy
animals help keep
people safe.
In short, pandemic preparedness and 'One Health' make the world safer by addressing health
threats wherever they begin.

WHO Pandemic Treaty: A Global Step for

Future Preparedness
The WHO Pandemic Treaty, adopted on 20
May 2025 at the 78th World Health
Assembly, is a legally binding agreement to
improve global pandemic prevention,
preparedness, and response. This treaty is
the first global effort to reduce pandemic
risks, promoting transparency and
cooperation to make the world safer and
more equitable.
Key Features Challenges
• Global Collaboration: Encourages a whole-of- • Lack of Enforcement:
society approach to strengthen health systems and Critics say the treaty lacks
ensure fair access to vaccines and treatments. enforcement and funding
• Equity Focus: Aims to address inequities seen mechanisms.
during COVID-19, ensuring a fair distribution of • Deferred Issues: Some
resources. issues, like vaccine
• Legal Framework: The treaty will take effect after 60 inequity, will be
countries ratify it and an annex on Pathogen Access addressed later.
and Benefit-Sharing (PABS) is adopted. • Political Concerns: Some
• Multilateral Commitment: Dr. Tedros Adhanom countries question the
Ghebreyesus called it a victory for public health WHO’s authority.
and global cooperation.

1.6. The Future of Health in India

India aims to achieve Universal Health Coverage (UHC) for all by 2030, ensuring that every
individual has access to affordable, appropriate, and accountable health services of
assured quality. In this context, the digital space offers significant opportunities to
strengthen service delivery, enhance access, and improve healthcare outcomes across the
country.
1.6.1. Digital Health Ecosystem
Digital Health integrates technology with healthcare delivery:
• Key Components: Telemedicine, e-health records, robot-assisted surgeries, e-
pharmacies, and e-insurance are reshaping patient care. The National Digital Health
Mission (NDHM) aims to digitize healthcare across India.

Student Notes:

National Digital Health Mission (NDHM):

• Purpose: Digitize healthcare in India by connecting
various stakeholders through digital platforms.
• Goals: Improve efficiency, effectiveness, and
transparency in health services, and help achieve
health-related Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs).
Other Initiatives:
• National Digital Health Blueprint (NDHB): Plan
for integrated and comprehensive digital health
services.

• Support under National Health Mission (NHM): Funding for services like telemedicine, Student Notes:
tele-radiology, tele-oncology, tele-ophthalmology, and hospital information systems.
• National Health Stack by Niti Aayog: A shared digital infrastructure for both central and
state use, aiding in the rapid development of health solutions.

The Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM)

The Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM) aims to connect digital he
solutions across Indian hospitals, creating a unified ecosystem. This sys
facilitates digital consultations, patient consent, and ensures d
privacy.
ABDM's key principles include inclusivity, free registration, volun
participation, and a single source of truth for medical records. The Natio
Health Authority oversees its implementation under the Union Ministry
Health & Family Welfare.
Components of ABDM Architecture
• Ayushman Bharat Health Account (ABHA) ID: A unique 14-digit numbe
store and manage health records.
• Healthcare Professionals Registry (HPR): A unified repository of healthc
professionals across all medicine.
• Health Facility Registries (HFR): Repository of health facilities of the na
(both public and private).
• Health Information Exchange and Consent Manager (HIE-CM): To ens
that data exchange is driven by informed consent.
• Unified Health Interface (UHI): To Facilitate the discovery and delivery
health services.
• National Health Claims Exchange (HCX): To standardize the insura
payment ecosystem.

Challenges of Digital Health Ecosystem

• Lack of Standardization in Digital Cards: India struggles to standardize coverage and
quality of existing digital health cards (e.g., ESIC card, PM-JAY card), leading to data
migration and transfer issues.
• Equity and Access Issues: Unequal access to digital health technologies, digital literacy
skills, etc., can exclude vulnerable populations, particularly in remote and rural areas.
o For example, the National Health Authority (NHA) reports that nearly 30% of
healthcare institutions in India suffer from poor data connectivity.
• Privacy and Security Issues: Unauthorized data access and breaches can compromise
patient privacy and lead to identity theft.
o For instance, in November 2022, AIIMS experienced a cyber-attack, causing server
downtime, disrupting the outpatient department (OPD), and withholding sensitive
data of around 4 crore patients.
• Algorithmic Bias: Technologies like AI can lead to unfair or discriminatory treatment,
causing racial and ethnic disparities in healthcare.
o For example, AI in US health systems exhibited bias by prioritizing healthier white
patients over sicker black patients for additional care, due to AI's training on cost data
instead of care needs.
India's digital healthcare infrastructure has great potential to improve accessibility and
efficiency. With ongoing policy support (like cybersecurity frameworks), infrastructure
development (such as BharatNet and Blockchain-based health records), public-private

collaborations, and technological advancements, India's healthcare system is set to become Student Notes:
a globally recognized model.
1.6.2. Telemedicine: eSanjeevani
• Potential: Telemedicine,
particularly platforms like
e-Sanjeevani, offers
remote consultations,
expanding access to
healthcare in rural areas.
o eSanjeevani is India’s
national telemedicine
platform offering both
doctor-to-doctor and
patient-to-doctor
services.
o The eSanjeevaniAB-
HWC variant connects
over 1,00,000
Ayushman Bharat
Health and Wellness
Centres with district
hospitals, enabling
teleconsultations.
o Launched in 2022, it supports hub-and-spoke
models for rural care.
o The eSanjeevaniOPD platform has facilitated
over 22 crore consultations, marking a
significant step in digital healthcare delivery.
• Hurdles: The digital divide poses significant
challenges. Issues include poor internet
connectivity, lack of computerization in public
health centers, and privacy concerns regarding
digital health data.
1.6.3. AI & Robotics in Healthcare
• AI in Healthcare: AI holds the potential to
transform diagnostics and drug discovery,
reducing human error and improving efficiency.
However, concerns about the "black box"
problem (lack of transparency in AI decision-
making) and privacy remain.
• Robotics in Healthcare: Robot-assisted
surgeries offer precision, but remote surgery by AI remains a future possibility that
requires significant infrastructure investment and regulatory frameworks.
• Ethical Concerns: AI requires large amounts of personal data, raising concerns about data
privacy and standardization. India needs a comprehensive regulatory framework for AI
in healthcare to ensure ethical use.
1.6.4. Medical Tourism
India is a global hub for medical tourism, driven by its low-cost, high-quality care, and
expertise in pharmaceuticals. It contributed USD 9 billion to India’s economy in 2023 and is
projected to grow further.

Student Notes:

Government Measures: India has introduced Medical Visas and a centralized portal for
booking services, but challenges remain in infrastructure, skills development, and policy
coordination.

Medical Tourism: Diplomacy & Dilemmas

India views medical tourism as a way to enhance its global
reputation and build international partnerships by
showcasing its healthcare strengths. This strategy attracts
foreign patients seeking quality and affordable treatments.
However, the challenge is to maintain a strong domestic healthcare infrastructure while
ensuring equitable access to healthcare for all Indian citizens. The goal is to benefit from
medical tourism without compromising the essential healthcare services needed for India’s
vast population.

2. Part B: Education
Education is a powerful
instrument of social
justice, enabling
individuals to break
cycles of poverty and
exclusion. Rooted in
India’s civilizational
values, it empowers
minds to drive inclusive
growth.

Yet, persistent inequities and underfunding hinder progress toward SDG 4, which envisions Student Notes:
equitable, quality education for all.

Constitutional and Legal Provisions on Education

The Indian Constitution underscores the importance of education, particularly for vulnerable
sections of society through various sections:
• Article 29: Ensures equality of opportunity in educational institutions and protects the
culture, language, and script of minorities.
• Article 30: Grants religious and linguistic minorities the right to establish and
administer their own educational institutions.
• Articles 15(3) & 15(4): Allow the state to make special provisions for the advancement of
children and women, and for the admission of backward classes, SCs, or STs in private
educational institutions.
• Article 21A: Guarantees free and compulsory education for all children aged 6 to 14
years as a fundamental right (inserted by the 86th Amendment Act, 2002).
• Articles 39(e) and 39(f): Directs the state to prevent the abuse of children at an early age
and ensure they have the opportunities and resources to grow in a healthy and dignified
environment.
• Article 45: Mandates the state to provide early childhood care and education for
children up to the age of six years.
• Article 46: Emphasizes the promotion of educational and economic interests of the
weaker sections, especially SCs and STs.
• Article 51A(k): A fundamental duty for parents to ensure education for children aged 6
to 14 years.
Right to Education Act, 2009
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009 came into effect
on April 1, 2010, enforcing Article 21A as a fundamental right.
• Objectives: To ensure free and compulsory primary education for children aged 6 to 14
years.
• Key Provisions:
o No child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until
elementary education is completed.
o Prohibits physical punishment, mental harassment, screening procedures, and
capitation fees.
o Mandates 25% reservation for economically disadvantaged children in private
schools for Class I admissions.
o Establishes norms for student-teacher ratios, school buildings, and teacher
working hours.
• Limitations: Critics argue it is input-oriented rather than outcome-focused, and does
not emphasize quality of learning. It also originally excluded children aged 0-6 and 14-
18.

2.1. Education System of India

2.1.1. Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)
Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) encompasses the holistic development of
children from birth to age eight, focusing on their physical, cognitive, social, and emotional
growth. This critical period lays the foundation for lifelong learning and well-being.
India has 158.7 million children in the 0-6 years age group (Census 2011) and catering to this
important segment of the population to ensure holistic development is imperative.

Student Notes:

• Challenges in ECCE:
o Affordability and Accessibility: High costs and geographical disparities, especially in
rural and marginalized communities.
o Quality and Standards: Focus on literacy and numeracy at the expense of holistic
development (social-emotional learning, creativity, motor skills).
o Shortage of Centers and Trained Personnel: Lack of qualified educators and training
in child development.

2.1.2. School Education Student Notes:
In India, formal school education commences after Early Childhood Care and Education
(ECCE), which covers children aged 3 to 6 years. Following ECCE, the education system is
structured into the 5+3+3+4 model as per the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020:
• Foundational Stage
(Ages 3–8): This
includes 3 years of
preschool or
Anganwadi followed by
Classes 1 and 2. The
focus is on activity-
based learning to
develop cognitive and
socio-emotional skills.
• Preparatory Stage
(Ages 8–11): Classes 3
to 5 introduce subjects
like languages, mathematics, science, and arts, aiming to build foundational literacy and
numeracy.
• Middle Stage (Ages 11–14): Classes 6 to 8 delve into more abstract concepts in subjects
such as mathematics, sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities.
• Secondary Stage (Ages 14–18): Classes 9 to 12 focus on multidisciplinary study, critical
thinking, and depth in chosen subjects. Board exams are conducted at the end of Classes
10 and 12.
2.1.2.1. Key Challenges in School Education
Category Key Challenges Details
The Learning ASER Report Poor foundational skills in reading and arithmetic. A
Crisis Findings significant percentage of 14-18-year-olds cannot read
simple texts or perform basic arithmetic.
Rote Learning Emphasis on rote memorization leads to a lack of real-
life application of knowledge.

Fragmented Varied quality of education across different institutions

Ecosystem (e.g., Madrasas, tribal schools).
Affordability, Dropout Rates High dropout rates due to poverty, lack of infrastructure,
Access, and and gender disparities.
Equity • For example, in Bihar, the dropout rate at the
secondary level is reported to be as high as 83%,
indicating severe retention issues in certain regions.
Out-of-School Over 1.4 million children aged 6-11 are out of school due
Children to poverty and lack of digital access during the pandemic.

Social Gaps Gender disparities and social norms (e.g., child

marriage) limit education for girls and marginalized
children.
• The ASER 2023 report indicates that 40% of girls aged
15-18 remain out of school due to early marriages,
domestic duties, and gender-based violence.

High School Rising cost of private schools makes quality education

Fees inaccessible for many.

Student Notes:
• In Telangana, private school fees have risen by up to
30% over the last decade, limiting the affordability of
quality education.
Infrastructure Lack of Basic Many schools, especially in rural areas, lack essential
and Resource Amenities facilities like clean water, toilets, and playgrounds.
Gaps
Digital Gaps Rural areas face lack of digital infrastructure, hindering
access to e-learning opportunities.
• Only 53.9% of schools in India have access to the
internet, with rural areas facing significant barriers to
digital learning. In rural areas, only 35% of students
have access to digital devices for education.

Underfunding Education expenditure remains well below the

recommended 6% of GDP.
• The current education expenditure in India remains
around 3.1% of GDP, well below the 6%
recommended by experts and global organizations
like UNESCO.

2.1.2.2. Major Government Initiatives NIPUN BHARAT

• Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan: A Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) is crucial

comprehensive initiative that aims to for early childhood development, influencing long-
term educational outcomes. Under NEP 2020, the
improve learning outcomes and
NIPUN Bharat Mission promotes joyful, activity-
infrastructure development across
based learning from preschool to grade 3, aiming to
schools.
reduce dropouts and build strong foundations for
• Mid-Day Meal (PM-POSHAN) learning.
Scheme: Provides free nutritious
meals to school children, improving
attendance and addressing hunger.
• NIPUN Bharat Mission: Targets
foundational literacy and numeracy
for all children by Class 3, ensuring
universal foundational skills.
• Madrasa Modernization: Efforts to
modernize Madrasa education and
integrate it into the formal school
system to improve educational
infrastructure.

Madarsa Education System in India

The madarsa education system is a traditional Islamic network focusing primarily on
religious education—Quran, Hadith, Fiqh (Islamic law), and Arabic. Over time, many
madarsas have introduced secular subjects like mathematics, science, and English to
enhance student outcomes.
Structure and Reach
• Operates at primary to higher education levels, offering degrees like Maulvi (Class
10),Alim (Class 12), Kamil (Bachelor’s), Fazil (Master’s)
• As of 2018–19, India had 24,010 madarsas with 19,132 recognised and 4,878
unrecognised madarsas.

Student Notes:
• Uttar Pradesh houses
Anjum Kadari & Another v. Union of India (2024)
the largest number of
madarsas. Supreme Court reversed the Allahabad High Court’s judgment
that struck down the UP Madarsa Act.
Modernisation Efforts
The court held that a law can be struck down only for violating
• Launched in the early Fundamental Rights, not the basic structure.
2000s, aimed at Confirmed the Act is within state legislative competence under
integrating modern Entry 25, Concurrent List (Education).
subjects and enhancing Stressed that the Act aims to ensure educational standards and
infrastructure. socio-economic inclusion for madarsa students.
• Key schemes:
Struck down provisions awarding degrees like Fazil and Kamil for
o SPQEM (Scheme for
violating Section 22 of UGC Act.
Providing Quality
Education in Reaffirmed minority educational rights under Article 30(1) and
Madrasas) the role of NCMEI in safeguarding them.
o SPEMM (Scheme for
Providing Education
to Madrasas/Minorities)
• Focus areas: Teacher training, curriculum upgrades, and infrastructure
development.
• Recent reforms:
o Uttarakhand introduced NCERT curriculum and Sanskrit as options.
o The 2024 Allahabad High Court struck down the UP Madarsa Board Act, raising
legal and administrative questions.

Key Challenges Way Forward

• Outdated religious curricula in many • Strengthen modernization
institutions. schemes and ensure state
• Shortage of trained teachers for modern recognition of madarsas.
subjects. • Introduce vocational training,
• Inadequate funding and poor digital literacy, and skill-based
infrastructure. learning.
• Resistance to change from within • Focus on teacher capacity
communities. building and community
• Lack of formal certification, reducing engagement.
employability and access to higher • Promote a balanced approach to
education. preserve tradition while ensuring
• Social stigma and exclusion from mainstream integration and
mainstream education spaces. economic empowerment.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Education in India

The COVID-19 pandemic led to one of the longest school closures in India, lasting over 73
weeks by September 2021. This caused disruptions in school enrollment, access to learning,
and a significant learning loss among children.
Shift in Enrollment: Private to Public Schools
• Private to Government Shift: Enrollment in private schools for children (age 6-14) in rural
India dropped from 32.5% in 2018 to 24.4% in 2021, while government school enrollment
rose from 64.3% to 70.3%.
• Reasons for Shift: Financial distress made private schools unaffordable, while
government schools offered free textbooks and food rations.

Student Notes:
• Increase in Tuition: The number of students taking paid tuition jumped from 29% in 2018
to 40% in 2021.
Digital Divide in Remote Learning
• Smartphone Access: Although smartphone access increased, children from less-
educated families had less access (45%) compared to those with highly educated
parents (79%).
• Learning Materials: Over 80% of children received textbooks, but only 35% received
additional materials like worksheets and online resources.
• Equity Gap: 26.7% of children with low parental education got extra learning materials,
compared to 49% with more educated parents.
Learning Loss
• Evidence of Loss: A study found 92% of children in grades 2-6 lost at least one language
skill, and 82% lost math skills.
• State-Level Data: Surveys in Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, and West Bengal showed sharp
drops in basic reading and arithmetic skills.
• Magnitude of Loss: In Karnataka, learning progress was less than half of what it would
have been in a normal year, showing a learning loss of over a year.
Recommendations for Recovery
The Standing Committee on Education chaired by Dr. Vinay Sahasrabuddhe proposed
several key measures to address these challenges:
• Reopening Schools: Safely reopen schools by vaccinating staff and students, holding
classes in shifts, providing free masks, and offering incentives like food and study
materials to re-enroll dropouts.
• Bridging Learning Gaps: Assess learning gaps, create bridge courses, and provide
personalized remedial classes for students needing extra support.
• Strengthening Digital Education: Invest in digital infrastructure, distribute subsidized
devices, train teachers for online content, and develop a hybrid model combining
online and classroom learning.
• Rethinking Exams: Establish a continuous assessment system alongside traditional
exams, using workbooks and presentations.

2.1.3. Teacher’s Training

Teacher education is essential for developing skilled, knowledgeable, and value-driven
educators who can shape young minds and strengthen the overall education system. Well-
trained teachers not only deliver curriculum effectively but also inspire critical thinking and
lifelong learning in students.
To enhance the quality of teacher training, improved selection processes are necessary. These
may include:
• General knowledge tests
• Subject-specific assessments
• Intelligence and language proficiency tests
• Interviews to assess attitude and interest
Such multi-dimensional evaluations can ensure only competent and passionate individuals
enter the teaching profession.
Government Initiatives for Teacher Training
• DIKSHA (Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing): Offers online and offline teacher
training resources, helping educators collaborate, upgrade skills, and access diverse
content anytime.

• Prashikshak Portal: Developed by the Ministry of Education and Central Square Student Notes:
Foundation, it supports District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) in improving
teacher preparation programs.
• RTE Act Amendment (2017): Mandated all in-service teachers to acquire minimum
qualifications as per NCTE norms by March 31, 2019, aiming to enhance classroom
teaching standards.
These steps reflect a systemic effort to professionalize teaching, address learning gaps, and
meet the evolving needs of modern education.
2.1.4. Higher Education Ecosystem
Higher education refers to formal education beyond secondary school, typically provided by
universities and colleges. It involves in-depth study of a specific subject area or field, leading to
qualifications like bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, and Phds.
India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, next to the United States and
China.
Structure of the higher education system in India:

2.1.4.1. State of Higher Education Student Notes:
India has one of the largest higher education systems globally, with the third-largest number of
students after the United States and China.
• Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) rose from 24.3% (2014–15) to 27.1% (2019–20) and 28.4%
(2020–21 and 2021–22).
• Gender Parity Index (GPI) improved, showing greater access for women in higher
education.
• PhD enrolments nearly doubled from 1.17 lakh (2014–15) to 2.03 lakh (2019–20).
2.1.4.2. Key Issues in Higher Education
India's higher education system faces several systemic challenges:
1. Bottlenecks in Regulation of Higher Education
A complex and often opaque regulatory environment stifles institutional autonomy and
innovation. This leads to inefficiencies and delays in implementing necessary reforms.

2. Quality and Accreditation (NAAC) of Institutions QS Rankings

The National Assessment and Accreditation
Council (NAAC) assesses the quality of Indian
institutions, and reports indicate that 68% of
institutions are of mediocre or poor quality. In
global rankings, Indian institutions are making
progress but still face significant challenges:
• QS World University Rankings: No Indian
university is in the top 100
o However, in the recent QS World
University Rankings India has a
record 54 institutions featured, the
fourth highest globally after the US,
UK, and China.
3. Faculty Shortage and Quality of Research
India faces a critical faculty shortage across
universities:
• 35% professor, 46% associate professor, and 26% assistant professor vacancies
remain unfilled.

• Research output is low, with India's R&D expenditure at 0.64% of GDP (2020-21). Student Notes:
• Indian businesses contribute only 37% of Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD), which
hinders innovation and industry-academia collaborations.

Student Notes:
Revamping India's Research Ecosystem: The Role of NRF
India’s research ecosystem has long suffered from fragmented funding, low R&D
investment (about 0.7% of GDP), bureaucratic hurdles, and weak industry-academia
collaboration. This has constrained India's global scientific standing and innovation
capacity, especially when compared to nations like the US and China.
To address these issues, the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (NRF) was
established through the NRF Act, 2023, replacing the Science and Engineering Research
Board (SERB).
NRF’s Mandate and Structure
• Acts as an apex body to provide strategic direction and seed research across
universities, R&D labs, and colleges.
• Covers STEM fields, agriculture, health, and social sciences and humanities.
• Operates with a ₹50,000 crore budget for 2023–28 (28% public, 72%
private/philanthropy).
• Governed by a board of scientists, industry leaders, and officials, with the Prime Minister
as ex-officio President.
Key Features and Reforms
• Democratises research funding by supporting peripheral and rural institutions
alongside elite centres.
• Streamlines processes by reducing bureaucratic delays and standardising funding
mechanisms.
• Strengthens industry-academia linkages and promotes international research
partnerships.
• Encourages interdisciplinary work, including priority areas like clean energy,
sustainability, and climate change.
• Includes social sciences and humanities, broadening the research landscape.
Challenges
• Mobilising private sector contributions at such scale is untested.
• Ensuring inclusive access to smaller institutions remains a concern.
• Bureaucratic inertia may hinder reforms.
• Translating research into tangible societal or economic impact is still a systemic
weakness.
Way Forward
• Incentivise private and philanthropic investment in research.
• Ensure merit-based and transparent funding through robust evaluation systems.
• Actively support underrepresented regions and disciplines.
• Focus on applied research that addresses real-world challenges.
• Foster global collaborations and align efforts with India’s target of 2% of GDP in R&D by
2047.

4. Financing of Higher Education (HEFA)

The Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) was launched in 2017 as a joint initiative
of the Ministry of Education and Canara Bank, to provide low-interest loans for the
development of infrastructure and research facilities in India’s premier educational
institutions. This model marked a shift from traditional direct grants to loan-based funding,
aiming to raise the global competitiveness of Indian institutions.
• By March 2025, HEFA had sanctioned over ₹43,438 crore across 109 institutions,
supporting the creation of labs, hostels, libraries, and innovation ecosystems.

• This financing mechanism aligns Student Notes:
with the vision of the NEP 2020 to
improve educational quality and
outcomes, especially amidst
concerns of chronic
underfunding—India’s
education spending still hovers
below 3% of GDP, far short of the
4–6% recommended by global
standards.
Emerging Challenges of the Loan-
Based Model
Despite enabling physical expansion,
HEFA’s approach has led to serious structural and equity concerns:
• Rising Student Fees: To service the HEFA loans, institutions—particularly IITs and Central
Universities—have resorted to steep fee hikes. This undermines affordability,
disproportionately impacting students from marginalized and low-income backgrounds.
• Risk of Commercialization and Exclusion: The shift towards self-financing models
pushes public institutions towards a quasi-private framework, potentially eroding their
public character and inclusive mission.
• Diversion from Core Functions: Institutions are compelled to divert funds for debt
servicing, which can compromise investment in academic quality, teaching resources,
and research.
• Neglect of State Public Universities: While HEFA has focused on centrally funded
institutions, 81% of India’s higher education students are in state public universities,
which remain underfunded and excluded from HEFA support, relying on unpredictable
state grants and limited fee-based income.
Way Forward
To ensure that infrastructure development does not come at the cost of affordability and
access, India must adopt a more nuanced and equity-driven approach:
• Increase Public Education Spending: The government should progressively raise
education funding to 6% of GDP, reducing the burden on institutions to rely on fee income
or loans.
• Expand Grants and Scholarships: Scale up need-based scholarships and targeted
grants to cushion vulnerable groups from rising educational costs.
• Transparent Fee Regulation: Introduce strong oversight mechanisms to regulate tuition
and prevent arbitrary fee hikes, ensuring financial predictability for students.
• State-Level Financing Innovations: Establish state-specific education finance agencies,
as recommended by NITI Aayog, and explore alumni engagement models, corporate
partnerships, and philanthropy to diversify funding sources for state universities.
• Balance Growth with Equity: While HEFA can continue to support capital-intensive
expansion, it should be complemented by direct public grants, particularly for essential
teaching infrastructure and student support services.

2.2. Miscellaneous Topics for Education

2.2.1. Internationalization of Higher Education: Foreign Universities in India
The entry of foreign universities into India’s higher education sector is poised to transform the
academic landscape well beyond just adding prestigious names.
• These institutions bring internationally benchmarked curricula, globally recognized
degrees, and experienced faculty, allowing Indian students access to world-class
education without incurring high overseas costs or facing visa hurdles.

• This not only makes quality education more affordable and inclusive but also helps retain Student Notes:
talent and reduce the outflow of foreign exchange.
• Foreign campuses foster research collaboration, faculty exchange, and governance
reforms, raising academic standards and research output
in Indian institutions.
• Their industry-aligned programs focus on practical skills,
internships, and entrepreneurship, directly enhancing the
employability of Indian graduates in both domestic and
global markets.
• Additionally, India’s strategic location and youthful, English-
speaking population position it as a potential global
education hub, attracting students from South Asia, Africa,
and the Middle East.
Challenges
• High Tuition Costs: Risk of catering only to affluent
students, excluding marginalized sections.
• Limited Reach: Only a few campuses are operational in the
short term, limiting system-wide impact.
• Cultural Disconnects: Differences in pedagogy, governance styles, and student support
systems may affect assimilation.
• Regulatory Uncertainty: Approval processes, taxation, and autonomy concerns could
deter full-scale participation.
• Commercialization Risk: Risk of profit-driven models overtaking quality and public interest
goals.
Way Forward
• Robust Regulatory Framework: Ensure clear, transparent rules with academic safeguards
and grievance redressal mechanisms.
• Equitable Access: Offer scholarships, cross-subsidies, and inclusion mandates to prevent
elitism.
• Domestic Collaboration: Encourage partnerships with Indian universities for joint degrees,
research, and faculty development.
• Local Integration: Promote community engagement, Indian context-based courses, and
bilingual pedagogy where needed.
• Gradual Expansion with Quality Focus: Prioritize quality over quantity in approving new
foreign institutions.
Foreign universities can raise India’s academic standards, improve employability, and
internationalize education. However, their success depends on inclusive policies, regulatory
clarity, and integration with local priorities to ensure that excellence goes hand-in-hand with
equity.

Expanding India's Academic Footprint: Indian Universities Going Global

The international expansion of Indian higher
education institutions—such as IITs, IIMs,
and leading private universities—into
countries like the UAE, Tanzania, and
Malaysia is reshaping India’s global
academic presence. These overseas
campuses offer Indian curricula, degrees,
and pedagogical models, delivering
affordable and quality education to both
the Indian diaspora and local students.

Student Notes:
This move enhances India’s soft power, fosters cross-cultural collaboration, promotes
joint research, and strengthens global academic networks, thereby raising the
international profile of Indian institutions and contributing to the global talent pool.

Challenges Way Forward

• Navigating diverse regulatory • Establish robust quality assurance
frameworks across countries. mechanisms to ensure academic integrity
• Ensuring consistent academic overseas.
standards and infrastructure • Invest in faculty development and global
abroad. exposure to prepare teams for international
• Facing stiff competition from well- roles.
established Western • Forge strategic partnerships with local
institutions. universities and industries for contextual
• Faculty shortages and the relevance.
complexity of managing cross- • Ensure government support through
border operations. streamlined approvals, diplomatic
• Adapting Indian curricula to local facilitation, and incentive structures.
socio-cultural and economic • Maintain a balance between global
contexts without compromising ambition and academic excellence,
quality. ensuring relevance in diverse educational
ecosystems.

As Indian institutions expand internationally, success will depend on maintaining quality,

building local relevance, and leveraging this opportunity to position India as a global leader in
affordable, high-impact education.

2.2.2. AI in Education: Personalized Learning and Ethical Challenges Student Notes:
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing Indian
education through personalized learning, where AI
platforms customize content, pace, and
assessments based on each student’s needs and
strengths.
Key Highlights:
• Market Growth: Valued at $4.74 billion in 2024,
reflecting rapid expansion.
• Adoption: Over 75% of higher education
institutions use hybrid or AI-enabled models.
• Government Push: e-Adhigam and 2025: Year of
AI initiative target 40 million students.
• Learning Outcomes: AI boosts academic
performance by 17% and retention by 15%.
Challenges:
• Digital Divide: Limited access in rural areas due
to poor connectivity and devices.
• Teacher Readiness: Many educators lack
training to integrate AI in classrooms.
• Ethical Concerns: Issues of data privacy,
algorithmic bias, and tech over-dependence.
• Affordability: AI tools may be too costly for
underfunded institutions.
Way Forward:
• Invest in digital infrastructure and affordable AI
solutions.
• Ensure teacher training in tech integration.
• Strengthen data protection laws and ethical AI
frameworks to ensure equity and inclusion

Case Study: AI Maker Labs – Learning by Doing in Indian Education

AI-enabled maker labs represent a transformative shift in education, moving from passive
textbook learning to hands-on experimentation. These labs allow students to interact
directly with AI tools and applications, bridging the gap between abstract theory and real-
world practice. Such experiential learning fosters deeper understanding, creativity, and
problem-solving—skills essential for the AI-driven future.
Key Features and Implementation:
• Real-World Application: Students train AI models (e.g., object classification in
environmental science), learning core AI functions and ethical considerations like bias.
• AI Made Tangible: Labs help students grasp AI mechanics and limitations through direct
interaction.
• Atal Tinkering Labs (ATLs): Over 10,000 labs under the Atal Innovation Mission provide
foundational infrastructure for AI integration.
• Challenges: Common issues include undertrained facilitators, underutilized tools, and
lack of a creative experimentation culture.
• Targeted Outreach: With 60% of labs in government schools, inclusive implementation
needs state and community collaboration.

Student Notes:
• Strategic Needs: Success depends on teacher training, strong leadership, mentorship,
and curriculum support.
AI maker labs hold great promise in democratizing AI education. With the right support
systems, they can prepare India’s students to innovate, adapt, and lead in an AI-powered
world.

2.2.3. Private Sector in Education

There may be two types of providers of education in the Indian system: public and private.
Private institutions are further classified as:
• Partly funded by the government (aided) or
• Entirely self-funded (unaided).
Public institutions are established, funded and managed by the government. Private providers
of education often step in when the government has limited resources to provide universal
access to education.
Over the past two
decades, India has
witnessed a rapid
increase in privatization
within its education
sector.
• In 2021-22, private
unaided schools
accounted for over
32 percent of total
schools imparting
education in India.
• In higher education, 67% of universities and 37% colleges in India are private.
Challenges and Issues in Private Sector Participation
• Inequality and Affordability: A study by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) found a
significant correlation between household income and the likelihood of children attending
private schools.
o The rising costs of private professional colleges, such as medical and engineering
institutions, have made them financially out of reach for many students.
• Quality Concerns: Studies by organizations like the Centre for Policy Research have
highlighted inconsistencies in teaching quality, infrastructure, and learning outcomes
across private schools.
o Studies by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) have shown a wide
range in quality parameters among private universities and colleges.
• Commercialization and Profit Motive:
o The profit-oriented nature of some private institutions can lead to a compromise on
academic integrity, focus on employability over holistic development, and unethical
practices like capitation fees.
o The case of private universities offering degrees in dubious disciplines or with
questionable academic rigor highlights the commercialization concerns.
2.2.4. Vocational Education and Skill Development
India's youth population presents an opportunity for a demographic dividend, but vocational
education faces several challenges:
• Low Penetration: Only 3% of the workforce receives formal vocational training.

Student Notes:

• Government Initiatives: The Indian government has launched several initiatives to promote
skill development and vocational training. Some of the key schemes include:
o Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY): This flagship scheme provides skill
training to the youth to enhance their employability.
o National Skill Development Mission (NSDM): NSDM acts as the overarching
framework for coordinating skill development efforts across the country.
o National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS): This scheme promotes
apprenticeships as a means of skill development and employment.
o Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY): This scheme
focuses on skill development for rural youth.
o Skill India Mission: This is a broader campaign encompassing various initiatives to
create a skilled workforce.
o Jan Shikshan Sansthan (JSS): These institutes provide vocational training to adults and
out-of-school youth.
2.2.5. NTA and Exam Paper Leak
The National Testing Agency (NTA), established in 2017 under the Ministry of Education, is
India’s premier autonomous body for conducting standardized and transparent entrance exams
for higher education. It aims to ensure equity,
quality, and reliability in assessments using
scientific and fair testing systems. Key exams
conducted by NTA include:
• NEET (UG)
• JEE Main
• CUET (UG & PG)
• UGC-NET
Paper Leak Controversy
In recent months, NTA has come under scrutiny due
to serious paper leak allegations, especially in
NEET-UG and CUET. These have highlighted major
systemic issues:
• Lapses in test security and confidentiality
• Outdated exam conduct practices (offline
pen-paper mode)
• Insufficient vetting of exam center staff and IT
systems
These failures have eroded public trust, triggered widespread protests, and raised concerns
about fairness and transparency in national-level exams.

Government Response & Student Notes:
Public Examinations (Prevention of Unfair Means) Act, 2024
Legislative Action
Enacted in February 2024, effective June 21, 2024, to curb exam
To address these concerns, the paper leaks in tests like NEET and UGC-NET.First national law
Central Government specifically addressing unfair means in public exams.
announced major NTA reforms
Objective: To restore public trust by ensuring exam integrity,
in December 2024:
accountability, and severe deterrence against malpractice.
• NTA to exit recruitment Key Provisions:
exams and focus solely on
Strict Punishments:
higher education entrance
exams from 2025. Paper leak offenders: 3–5 years’ jail + ₹10 lakh fine.
• Restructuring of NTA: Organized crime: 5–10 years’ jail + ₹1 crore minimum fine.
o Creation of an Cognisable & Non-bailable: Police can arrest without a warrant;
empowered governing offences are non-compoundable.
council with domain
Institutional Accountability:
experts.
o Addition of 10 verticals Exam service providers failing to report offences: fined up to ₹1
including test security, crore.
research, and Institutions involved may face property seizure and cost
infrastructure. recovery.
o Launch of computer- Targets Organised Crime: Covers leaks, impersonation, hacking,
adaptive testing and related offences.
systems and AI- Student Protection: Genuine candidates are shielded from
enabled monitoring punishment.
tools.
• A shift towards online
testing for major exams like NEET is under active discussion.
Way Forward
• Strengthen digital infrastructure and adopt adaptive computer-based testing.
• Enhance exam security through biometric verification, AI-based proctoring, and real-
time surveillance.
• Ensure transparency and accountability through audits, public disclosures, and strict
penalties.
• Legislative measures to criminalize organized exam fraud and plug legal gaps in
enforcement.
The NTA is pivotal to India’s higher education admission system, but recent paper leaks have
exposed critical weaknesses. With the government's reform push, there is an opportunity to
rebuild credibility, modernize exam conduct, and ensure that merit, not malpractice,
determines opportunity.
2.2.6. National Education Policy

Stage of Policy Recommendation Potential Impact

Education/
Dimension

Early • Incorporate Early • This recommendation will ensure that

Childhood Childhood Care and children receive a strong foundation in
Education (3-6 Education (ECCE) their early years, promoting brain
years) into the school development.
curriculum through a • It could lead to better learning
5+3+3+4 design. outcomes in later stages of education,
as early childhood education is critical

Student Notes:
• It should be play- for cognitive and emotional
based and activity- development.
based learning.

Foundational Establish foundational • Ensuring that every child achieves

Stage (3-8 literacy and numeracy foundational literacy and numeracy by
years) by grade 3 through the grade 3 will enhance long-term
National Mission on academic success and reduce dropout
Foundational Literacy and rates.
Numeracy. • It will also improve student
performance in higher grades,
contributing to a more competent
workforce in the future.

Preparatory Reducing curriculum • By reducing the content load and

Stage (8-11 load to focus on core focusing on critical thinking, students
years) subjects and enhancing will be better prepared for complex
critical thinking and subjects in the later stages of education.
analytical skills. • This could make learning more engaging
and help students retain knowledge
better, moving away from rote
memorization.

Middle Stage Introduce flexibility in • Allowing students to choose subjects

(11-14 years) subject selection, will lead to more personalized learning
offering a broader range of experiences, encouraging exploration of
choices to students in different areas of interest.
secondary school. • This could reduce stress related to rigid
subject structures and promote a more
well-rounded skill set in students.

Secondary • Reform board exams • These reforms will reduce the pressure
Stage (14-18 to assess core associated with high-stakes exams,
years) concepts and allow allowing students to focus on conceptual
multiple attempts. understanding.
• Promote the use of • The shift towards using local languages
local languages as a will enhance comprehension and
medium of inclusivity, enabling students from
instruction. diverse linguistic backgrounds to better
grasp subjects.

Higher • Increase Gross • Improving GER will promote greater

Education Enrolment Ratio access to higher education, especially
(GER) to 50% by 2035 for marginalized communities.
through online and • The restructuring of institutions into
open distance multidisciplinary entities will foster
learning options. cross-disciplinary learning, preparing
• Restructure students for the complexities of the
institutions into global workforce.
multidisciplinary
universities.

Vocational Integrate vocational • This policy will address the skills gap in
Education education into all levels India, as many students currently
of school and higher graduate without job-ready skills.

Student Notes:
education, aiming for 50% • Expanding vocational education will
exposure by 2025. enable more students to acquire
practical skills that can enhance
employability and economic
productivity, particularly in industries
requiring specialized knowledge.

Teacher Replace B.Ed. with a 4- • This reform will improve the quality of
Training and year integrated program teacher education, ensuring teachers
Management and ensure continuous are well-prepared and updated with the
professional latest teaching methods.
development for • Continuous development will
teachers. contribute to better classroom
practices, leading to improved student
outcomes.

Governance Establish school • This will create more efficient school

and Regulation complexes and management systems, pooling
independent state resources and teachers to improve the
school standards quality of education in rural and
authorities for better underserved areas.
governance and quality. • It will also decentralize power, ensuring
that local governments have more
autonomy to cater to regional needs.

Research and Establish a National • Increased funding and support for

Innovation in Research Foundation to research will boost innovation,
Higher fund and promote quality contributing to scientific, technological,
Education research. and social progress.
• It could also enhance India's global
academic standing, leading to more
collaboration with international
institutions and attracting global talent.

UNIT 3: POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES IN INDIA Student Notes:

PYQ Analysis and Insights

Unit 3 of Social Justice covers the key area of Poverty and Development Issues in India.
Based on our in-depth analysis of Previous Year Questions (PYQs) from 2013 to 2024, we
have classified the questions into distinct categories, offering clear guidance on how to
approach each type effectively.
The VAM content has been crafted with these insights in mind, ensuring a focused and
strategic approach to your preparation. By combining this structured deconstruction with the
VAM material, you will be equipped to write targeted and comprehensive answers,
maximizing your score in GS Paper 2.

Question Type PYQs Insights for Mains 2025

Understanding 2024: Poverty and malnutrition • Focus on the link between poverty
of Poverty create a vicious cycle, adversely and malnutrition: Understand how
(including affecting human capital poverty and malnutrition are
Multidimensiona formation. What steps can be interlinked and how breaking this
l Poverty) and taken to break the cycle? cycle is crucial for human capital
Hunger formation.
2020: "The incidence and
intensity of poverty are more • Study key reports (e.g.,
important in determining poverty Multidimensional Poverty Index) to
based on income alone". In this analyze poverty dimensions beyond
context, analyse the latest United just income. Discuss the shift from
Nations Multidimensional Poverty income-based poverty measures
Index Report. to multidimensional metrics, such
as health, education, and living
2015: Though there have been standards.
several different estimates of • Provide steps to address poverty
poverty in India, all indicate (e.g., social security schemes,
reduction in poverty levels over improving nutrition, skill
time. Do you agree? Critically development programs). Provide
examine with reference to urban examples from India's poverty
and rural poverty indicators. measures and how SDGs are linked
to it.

Causes and 2018: How far do you agree with • Analyze the causes of hunger:
Focus on availability of food, but
Drivers of the view that the focus on lack of
also human development policies
Hunger availability of food as the main
(e.g., nutrition programs, healthcare
cause of hunger takes the
attention away from ineffective access, education).
human development policies in • Critically examine using data if
India? policy failure or distribution issues
are more significant than food
scarcity.
• Assess government progress: Use
Government 2017: Hunger and Poverty are the
reports like Global Hunger Index or
Actions and biggest challenges for good
Effectiveness of governance in India still today. NITI Aayog’s MPI to evaluate how
Poverty Evaluate how far successive well India’s government has tackled
poverty and hunger.
Alleviation governments have progressed in
Programs dealing with these humongous • Suggest improvements: Propose
problems. Suggest measures for policy reforms, like better targeting
improvement. of welfare schemes, improving PDS,
or expanding social protection
programs.

1. Poverty in India Student Notes:

Poverty in India is a complex and

multidimensional issue which has
been conventionally understood
through the lens of low income or
inadequate calorie intake.
• Modern definition of Poverty is
characterized by deprivation in
multiple aspects of life, such
as health, education, access
to basic goods and services,
and opportunity for self-
improvement.
• While income is a central
component in defining it,
poverty also involves social
exclusion, lack of physical
security, and
disempowerment. These
factors contribute to an overall sense of deprivation that severely impacts an individual's
quality of life.
• This multifaceted nature of poverty leads to intergenerational transmission of poverty,
where the children of poor families are more likely to remain poor due to limited access to
education, nutrition, and employment opportunities.
Types of Poverty

The Poverty Trap

Economists often describe poverty as a "trap"- a self-reinforcing condition where deprivation
perpetuates further deprivation. In India, this trap is sustained by multiple interlinked factors:
Key Determinants of Poverty Trap in India
• Lack of Income and Purchasing Power: Individuals living below the poverty line often
lack the resources to afford basic necessities like food, shelter, healthcare, and
education.
• Underemployment and Low Productivity: Scarcity of quality jobs, informal
employment, and low agricultural productivity limit income generation, reinforcing
poverty across generations.
• Inadequate Social Infrastructure: Poor access to education, healthcare, sanitation,
and housing further reduces human capital development, keeping individuals in a state
of marginalization.

Student Notes:
Understanding the Vicious
Cycle of Poverty
This complex situation leads
to a vicious cycle of
poverty as shown below:
• Poor families can’t
invest in their children’s
education or health.
• Children grow up with
fewer skills and limited
job prospects.
• They enter adulthood
trapped in the same
conditions, repeating
the cycle.
This intergenerational
transfer of poverty is
further worsened by limited
access to credit, insecure
land rights, social
exclusion, and ineffective
safety nets.
Breaking the Cycle:
Towards a Virtuous Loop
The Economic Survey of India has
consistently argued for a transition from a
vicious cycle to a virtuous cycle of growth.
This requires:
• Strategic public investment in
education, health, and infrastructure.
• Skill development and
entrepreneurship promotion to
enhance productivity.
• Job creation through industrial
diversification and formalization.
• Social mobility initiatives, including
credit access and targeted welfare.
Poverty in India is not merely a result of
income deficiency, but a multidimensional trap that reinforces itself through poor
capabilities and limited opportunities. Breaking this trap demands holistic policy efforts
that empower individuals and enable them to participate meaningfully in economic growth.
Creating a virtuous cycle, where higher incomes lead to better health and education—and,
in turn, higher productivity—offers the most sustainable path to poverty eradication.

Note: Detailed Discussion on Poverty is provided in VISIONIAS Economics Value Added

Material accessible from UPSC Mains Corner. The discussion in this document is limited to
Poverty and its association with Hunger(& Malnutrition)

2. Hunger and Malnutrition Student Notes:

• Hunger is defined as prolonged food insecurity, where

individuals are unable to access enough food due to
financial constraints or a lack of resources.
o According to the WHO, hunger arises when people
are unable to obtain sufficient calories or essential
nutrients to maintain good health.
• Malnutrition is another significant problem. It refers to
deficiencies in the intake of necessary nutrients, which
can either be caused by undernutrition or overnutrition.
o Undernutrition leads to problems like stunting,
wasting, and micronutrient deficiencies. On the other
hand, overnutrition, resulting from excessive
consumption of unhealthy foods, leads to obesity,
cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes.
One major aspect of undernutrition is hidden hunger, which occurs when individuals do not
consume enough vitamins and minerals despite sufficient calorie intake. Hidden hunger
significantly impacts children, pregnant women, and adults, contributing to poor cognitive
development, illness, and reduced productivity.

Hidden Hunger and Malnutrition

Despite significant strides in poverty reduction, hidden hunger and malnutrition continue to
affect millions, particularly children and women, hindering overall health and productivity.
• Hidden Hunger
o Hidden hunger refers to micronutrient deficiencies—the lack of essential vitamins
and minerals such as vitamin A, iron, and iodine—despite an adequate caloric
intake. It remains a silent epidemic in India, especially among children and pregnant
women.
o This type of hunger significantly impacts cognitive development, immune function,
and overall health, leading to poor educational outcomes and reduced productivity

Student Notes:
in adulthood. Hidden hunger is particularly prevalent in rural and marginalized
urban areas, where access to diverse and nutritious food remains limited.
• Malnutrition
o Malnutrition continues to be a pervasive issue in India, contributing to high rates of
child stunting, wasting, and underweight. According to the Global Hunger Index
(GHI) 2023, India ranks 111th out of 125 countries, reflecting its serious hunger
levels.
o Child wasting, defined as low weight-for-height, remains a major concern, with
India holding the highest global rate of 18.7% for child wasting. High rates of anemia
in women (57%) and stunting (35.5%) among children are also prominent indicators
of the scale of malnutrition in India.

Causes of Hunger and Malnutrition

Several interconnected factors contribute to hunger and malnutrition in India:
• Poverty: Families below the poverty line
cannot afford nutritious food, leading to
issues like stunting and wasting. For
instance, 31.4% of children in India are
stunted due to chronic malnutrition
caused by poverty.
o The World Bank estimates that 22% of
India’s population lives below the
poverty line, limiting their access to
nutritious food.
• Social and Cultural Factors: Gender
inequality is a critical factor. Women often
have limited access to food within
households, particularly in patriarchal
societies. Cultural norms also play a role,
where children and girls are sometimes
deprived of adequate nutrition, leading to
nutritional deficiencies.
o A study by UNICEF India found that
gender inequality leads to food
insecurity, where girls in rural Bihar were often fed last in their households, leading to
nutritional deficiencies. Cultural norms prioritize male family members over females
for food intake.
• Economic Factors: Insufficient government expenditure on child nutrition, food wastage,
and underutilization of welfare funds exacerbate hunger and malnutrition. Additionally,
low agricultural productivity and underemployment in rural areas contribute to food
insecurity.
o According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), India faces significant food
wastage—about 40% of food production is wasted annually.
o The Government of India’s Economic Survey 2020-21 highlighted that
underutilization of funds allocated for child nutrition and low agricultural
productivity contribute to malnutrition.
• Governance Issues: Corruption, mismanagement, and inefficient monitoring of welfare
schemes, such as the Public Distribution System (PDS), hinder the effective distribution
of food and nutrition to the poor. Despite numerous government schemes, leakage, and
ineffective implementation continue to pose significant challenges.
o A 2018 report by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) found that 30-
40% of food grains allocated for the Public Distribution System (PDS) in Bihar were
lost due to leakage and mismanagement, preventing effective delivery to vulnerable
populations.

• Environmental Factors: Climate change is increasingly affecting agriculture and food Student Notes:
production, leading to food insecurity. Poor sanitation and hygiene also result in diseases
that hinder nutrient absorption, exacerbating malnutrition.
o A 2019 report by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) highlighted that
climate change is affecting food production in India. For example, wheat and rice
production in states like Punjab and Haryana have been impacted by shifting monsoon
patterns, leading to food insecurity. Moreover, poor sanitation continues to hinder
nutrient absorption, exacerbating malnutrition.

2.1. Link Between Poverty and Hunger

• Limited Access to Food: Poverty restricts financial resources, making it difficult for families
to afford enough food, let alone nutritious options. A significant portion of the population in
developing nations cannot afford a healthy diet, leading to undernutrition and food
insecurity.
• Impact on Human
Capital: Hunger,
especially in children,
impairs physical growth,
cognitive development,
and learning abilities.
This affects educational
outcomes, leading to
reduced opportunities for
better employment in the
future, and contributes to
the intergenerational
transmission of poverty.
• Reduced Productivity in
Adults: Malnutrition
weakens the body’s
immunity and causes
fatigue, making it difficult
for adults to work at full capacity. This leads to underemployment or unemployment,
which deepens the cycle of poverty.
• Poor Sanitation and Healthcare: In impoverished areas, poor access to clean water,
sanitation, and healthcare contributes to diseases like diarrhea, which further hinders
nutrient absorption and worsens malnutrition. This health crisis increases medical costs,
taking away resources from food.
• Vicious Cycle: Poverty leads to hunger, and hunger reduces the capacity to work, earn, and
thrive, making it harder to break free from the cycle of poverty and malnutrition. Both
issues need to be tackled together to disrupt this ongoing loop

Ultra Processed Food and Hunger

The increasing consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) in India highlights the
intersection between health, hunger, and poverty. These foods are affordable, convenient,
and widely accessible, making them particularly attractive to low-income populations who
often struggle to afford healthier, fresh food. As a result, UPFs contribute to hidden hunger,
where individuals consume sufficient calories but lack essential nutrients, leading to
malnutrition.
• Health Implications: UPFs are linked to chronic conditions like obesity, cardiovascular
diseases, and type 2 diabetes, which disproportionately affect impoverished
communities. This exacerbates their already vulnerable health status and limits their
ability to work or attend school, reinforcing the cycle of poverty.

Student Notes:
• Economic Burden: The affordability of UPFs often comes at the cost of nutrient-rich
alternatives, such as fruits and vegetables, which are more expensive and less
accessible. This imbalance leads to nutrient deficiencies and poor long-term health
outcomes, increasing healthcare costs.
In essence, the rise of UPF consumption in poverty-stricken areas creates a vicious cycle of
poor health and limited opportunities. Addressing this issue requires multi-pronged policy
measures, focusing on education, regulation, and promotion of healthy food options.

3. Government Response to Eliminate Poverty and Hunger

Poverty Alleviation Programs
The Indian government has implemented several key welfare programs aimed at tackling
poverty and hunger, especially among marginalized and vulnerable groups. These programs
seek to address both economic deprivation and social exclusion, with a focus on improving
the living standards of the poor, ensuring access to essential services, and empowering
individuals to improve their socio-economic conditions.
• National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
o MGNREGA is a flagship program aimed at providing guaranteed employment to rural
households. It ensures that at least one adult member of a household is employed for a
minimum of 100 days per year, providing income support for rural families.
o The program focuses on creating rural infrastructure through public works projects
such as road construction, irrigation works, and afforestation. By providing
employment opportunities, MGNREGA helps reduce rural poverty and improves the
standard of living for millions of rural households.
• Public Distribution System (PDS)
o The PDS is one of the largest food security systems in the world, designed to provide
subsidized food grains to the poor. It aims to ensure that vulnerable populations,
especially those in rural and remote areas, have access to essential food items like rice,
wheat, and sugar at affordable prices.
o The system is essential in preventing hunger and malnutrition by guaranteeing access
to basic food for those unable to purchase it from the open market. However, challenges
related to leakage, corruption, and inefficient distribution have hampered its
effectiveness in some regions.
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)
o PMAY is a housing scheme aimed at providing affordable housing to the urban poor.
With a goal to construct millions of affordable homes for the homeless and those living
in inadequate conditions, PMAY focuses on urban slums and underdeveloped rural
areas.
o The program aims to reduce homelessness and improve living standards, ensuring
that the poor have access to safe and secure housing. It is part of the government's
broader strategy to tackle urban poverty and create sustainable cities.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan
o The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission) is an initiative to improve sanitation
and hygiene nationwide, with a particular focus on rural areas. The mission aims to
eliminate open defecation, improve access to clean drinking water, and promote the
use of toilets.
o By improving sanitation, the program directly impacts public health, reducing the
incidence of waterborne diseases like diarrhea and malaria, which are prevalent in
poor communities. Improved hygiene practices also contribute to reducing
malnutrition and hidden hunger by ensuring safe environments for food consumption.
Programs for Removal of Hunger and Malnutrition
India has implemented multiple programs to address hunger and malnutrition, focusing on
both immediate food access and long-term nutrition improvement.

• National Food Security Act (NFSA): Student Notes:
o Covers around 81 crore people.
o Targets 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population.
o Provides subsidized food grains through the Targeted Public Distribution System
(TPDS).
• Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna
Yojana (PMGKAY):
o Extended till 2029.
o Ensures free food grains to 81.35
crore beneficiaries.
o Acts as a buffer for the poor against
economic shocks.
• Integrated Child Development
Services (ICDS):
o Targets children under six, as well
as pregnant and lactating women.
o Provides supplementary
nutrition, health checkups, and
early education support.
• Mid-Day Meal Scheme (now PM
POSHAN):
o Provides nutritious meals to school children.
o Aims to improve child nutrition, increase school attendance, and reduce dropout
rates.
• POSHAN Abhiyaan
o Goals: Reduce stunting, wasting, underweight, and anemia in children and women.
NFHS-5 data shows modest improvements in all indicators. Promotes breastfeeding,
dietary diversity, and hygiene during the critical first 1,000 days.
o Technology Use: Real-time tracking via the ICDS-CAS app enables data-driven
planning.
o Community Engagement: Jan Andolan campaigns have reached over 30 crore people
to spread nutrition awareness.
o Convergence: Integrates efforts across 18 ministries, with localized action plans.

Progress in Poverty Reduction

The government’s poverty alleviation programs have
made significant strides in reducing poverty across India,
with substantial improvements in key poverty indicators.
• Reduction in Poverty Rates
o According to the NITI Aayog’s Multidimensional
Poverty Index (MPI) report, 13.5 crore people
were lifted out of poverty between 2015-16 and
2019-21.
o The national poverty rate declined from 24.85%
to 14.96%, showing a marked improvement in the
socio-economic conditions of millions. The
decline in poverty has been more pronounced in
rural areas, which have traditionally had higher poverty rates.
• Government Commitment to Poverty Reduction
o These improvements reflect the government's commitment to addressing
multidimensional poverty, which includes not just income but also access to
healthcare, education, and basic services like water and sanitation.
o However, challenges remain in fully eradicating hunger and malnutrition,
particularly in regions with historical and social inequalities.

4. Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): Improvements Student Notes:

and Challenges
India has made significant progress in reducing multidimensional poverty, as highlighted by
the latest United Nations and Human Development Reports. Unlike income-based poverty
measures, the MPI captures simultaneous deprivations across health, education, and living
standards using indicators like nutrition, child mortality, years of schooling, sanitation, and
access to electricity.
Key Data on MPI

2025 Human Development India’s national MPI (based on NFHS-5 data, 2019–21)
Report shows:
• 16.4% of Indians are • Poverty fell from 24.85% in 2015–16 to 14.96% in 2019–
multidimensionally poor 21
• 4.2% are in severe poverty • About 415 million people escaped poverty in 15 years
• 18.7% are vulnerable to • Urban poverty is now 5.5%
falling into poverty • Rural areas and poorer states like Bihar, Jharkhand,
and Uttar Pradesh saw the fastest reductions but still
have high absolute numbers

Why the Decline Happened

Success in the stark decline is attributed to India’s multisectoral interventions in areas like:
• Sanitation (Swachh Bharat Mission)
• Electricity (Saubhagya Scheme)
• Housing (PM Awas Yojana)
• Nutrition and Health (POSHAN Abhiyaan, Ayushman Bharat)
• Education (Samagra Shiksha)
Challenges Ahead
• Child poverty remains high despite improvements
• Regional disparities persist between states and within districts
• Nearly one in five Indians remains vulnerable to multidimensional poverty
• MPI lacks measurement of intra-household inequality and faces data collection issues
Way Forward: Data-Centric Strategies to Reduce Multidimensional Poverty
• Expand Quality Education Access: Address 11.9% MPI deprivation from schooling by
improving rural digital access and implementing NEP 2020 effectively.
• Diversify Rural Livelihoods: Reduce 45% agri-dependence by promoting skilling, MSMEs,
and allied sectors in MPI-intense districts.
• Strengthen Social Safety Nets: Streamline PMGKAY and DBT schemes to ensure food
and health coverage for over 80 crore beneficiaries.
• Combat Malnutrition: Target 35.5% stunting and 57% anemia rates via POSHAN Abhiyaan,
Anaemia Mukt Bharat, and fortified PDS.
• Adopt Region-Specific Targeting: Use MPI dashboards to prioritize high-poverty states like
Bihar, Jharkhand, and UP with tailored plans.
• Leverage Public-Private Partnerships: Redirect CSR funds toward education, nutrition,
and skilling in MPI hotspots.

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission of Vision IAS.

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