CHAPTER 12

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2
 Contents

Electric current Heating effect

Electric Potential Electric power
Ohm’s law Exercise (MCQ)

Resistivity
Resistances in series
 Electric current
Electric current is defined
as rate of flow of charges.
 Conductors
The substances through which
electricity can flow are called
conductors.
Ex: Metals like Silver, copper,
aluminium, alloys such as
nichrome, carbon in the form
of graphite, etc.
Conductors
 Electric circuit
A closed and continuous path
along which an electric current
flows is called an electric
circuit.
 Open circuit
An electric circuit through
which no current flows is
called an open circuit.
 Closed circuit
An electric circuit through
which current flows
continuously is called an
closed circuit.
 Insulator
The substances through which
electricity cannot flow are
called insulators.
Ex: Glass, ebonite, rubber,
most plastics, paper, dry wood,
cotton, mica, Bakelite,
porcelain, dry air.
Insulator
 How is electric current
expressed ?
Electric current is expressed by
the amount of charge flowing
through a particular area in
unit time.
Conventional flow of electric energy
The electric current flows from a
region of higher potential to a
region of lower potential. That is
in a direction opposite to the
direction of flow of electrons.
Formula for current through a
Where the Q is the net charge, t is time and I is the current.

cross section
Q
I
t
Where the Q is the net charge,
t is time and I is the current.
 SI unit of charge
coulomb (C)

One coulomb is equivalent to

the charge contained in nearly
18
6x10 electrons.
 Charge of an electron
Electron has a negative charge
-19
of 1.6 x 10 C.
=
Calculate the number of
electrons constituting one
coulomb of charge.
1 electron = 1.6 ×10-19C .
x electrons = 1 C
1 19
10
x 
10  x1018

1.6 x10 19 1.6 1.6

6.25 x 1018 electrons are present in one

coulomb of charge.
 Unit of electric current
Electric current is expressed by
ampere (A).
 Ampere
The electric current flowing
through a conductor is said to
be one ampere when one
coulomb of charge flows
through a conductor in one
second.
 Ampere
1coulomb
1 ampere 
1 sec ond
Other units of electric current.
Milliampere (1mA = 10-3 ampere)
Microampere (1mA=10-6 ampere)
 Ammeter
The instrument used to
measure current in a circuit is
called ammeter.
How is an ammeter connected in a
circuit?
An ammeter is always
connected in series in a circuit
through which the current is to
be measured.
Why should an ammeter have
a very low resistance?
Since the entire current passes
through the ammeter, It
should not change the value of
current flowing in the circuit.
 Electric potential
The electric potential at a
point in an electric field is
defined as the work done in
moving a unit positive charge
from infinity to that point.
 SI Unit of Electric potential
The SI unit of electric potential
is volt.
 Potential difference
The potential difference
between two points in an
electric circuit is defined as the
amount of work done in moving
a unit positive charge from one
point to the other point.
 Potential difference
Work done
Potential difference 
Ch arg e moved

W
V
Q
 One volt
If 1 Joule of work is required
to move a charge of 1
coulomb from one point to
another, then the potential
difference between the two
points is 1 V. 1 volt  1 joule
1 coloumb
 Voltmeter
A Voltmeter is a device used
to measure the potential
difference.
How is a voltmeter connected in a circuit?
A voltmeter is always
connected in parallel across
the points where the
potential difference
is to be measured.
Why should a voltmeter have a high
resistance?
A voltmeter should have a
high resistance so that it
draws a negligible current
from the circuit.
Symbols used in electric circuit
Symbols used in electric circuit
 Ohm’s Law
At constant temperature, the
current flowing through a
conductor is directly
proportional to the potential
difference across its
ends.
Mathematical form of Ohm’s Law
V=RxI
Where V = potential
difference
I = current
R = resistance
 Resistance
Resistance is defined as the ratio
of the potential difference across
the conductor to the current
flowing though the conductor.
OR
Resistance is the property of a
conductor to resist the flow of
charges through it.
 Resistance
Potential difference
R
Current
V
R
I
 Cause of Resistance
When free electrons drift inside a conductor, they
frequently collide with its positive ions or atoms.
The motion of the electrons is opposed during the
collisions.
 SI unit of Resistance
The SI unit of resistance is
ohm denoted by the
symbol W
 1 Ohm
If the potential difference
across the two ends of a
conductor is 1 V and the
current through it is 1 A,
then the resistance of the
conductor is 1 ohm. 1 ohm  1 volt
1 ampere
Relation between resistance and current
The current through a resistor
is inversely proportional to its
resistance.
 Why tungsten is used almost exclusively for
filament of electric lamps?
The melting point and resistivity of tungsten
are very high. It does not burn readily at a
high temperature. The electric lamps glow at
very high temperatures. Hence, tungsten is
mainly used as heating element of electric
bulbs.
 Rheostat
A device used to change the
magnitude of the current by
changing the length of the resistance
wire inserted into the circuit called
variable resistance or rheostat.
 Difference between resistance and
Resistor
Resistance Resistor
The property by
virtue of which a
Any material which
material opposes
has some resistance
the flow of current
is called a resistor.
through it is called
resistance.
 Activity

When the length of the wire is

doubled, the ammeter reading
decreases to one-half its initial value.
 Activity

When we use a thicker wire of the same

material and of the same length, the
current in the circuit increases.
 Activity

When we use copper wire of similar

dimensions in place of the nichrome
wire, the current in the circuit increases.
Factors on which resistance of a conductor
depends
The resistance of a conductor depends:
1) On its length
2) On its area of cross-section
3) On the nature of its material
4) Temperature of the conductor
 Resistance of a conductor depends on
length
Resistance of a conductor is directly
proportional to its length.

Ra L
 Resistance of a conductor depends on
area of cross-section
Resistance of a conductor is inversely
proportional to its area of cross-
section.
1
R a
A
 Resistance of a conductor depends on
nature of the material
Resistance also depends on the
nature of the material of which the
conductor is made. The resistance of
a copper wire is much less than that
of a nichrome wire of same length
and area of cross-section.
L
R a
A
 Resistivity
Resistivity is defined as the resistance
offered by a cube of material of side
1m when current flows
perpendicular to its opposite faces.
RxA

L
 SI unit of Resistivity
SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter
(W m)
 Difference between resistance &
Resistivity
Resistance Resistivity

Electrical resistance of
Electrical resistivity of
a conductor changes
a conductor remains
with change in length
constant at a
or area of cross-
particular
section of the
temperature.
conductor.
 Classification of solids on the basis of
resistivity
On the basis of resistivity values,
solids can be classified into:
1) Conductors
2) Insulators
3) Semi conductors
 Conductors
Metals and their alloys have low
resistivity in the range of 10-8Wm to
-6
10 Wm. These are good conductors
of electricity. They offer low
resistance to the flow of current.
Copper & aluminium have lowest
resistivities.
 Insulators
Insulators are substances which have
large resistivities, more than 104Wm.
Insulators like glass and rubber have
high resistivities in the range of
1012Wm to 1017Wm.
 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are the substances
whose resistivities lie between those
of conductors and insulators i.e.
-6
between 10 to 10 Wm.-4

Ex: Germanium and silicon.

A wire of resistivity  is stretched to three
times its length. What will be its new
resistivity?
Resistivity remains unchanged as it
does not depend on length. It
depends on the nature of the
material of the wire.
 Why do we use copper and aluminium
wires for transmission of electric current?

copper and aluminium

have low resistivity
or high conductivity.
 Resistivity
• Silver has the lowest resistivity
(resistivity = 1.60 x 10-8 ohm-metre)
• The resistivity of an alloy is
generally higher than that of pure
metals which from the alloy.
• The resistivity of an alloy like
constantan does not change with
its temperature.
 Why are coils of electric toasters and
electric irons made of an alloy rather than
a pure metal?
The coils of electric toaster and electric iron
are made of alloys instead of pure metal due
to:
• Alloys have higher resistivity than that of
their constituent metals.
• Alloys do not oxidize (or burn)
readily at high temperatures.
Need for combination of resistances in an
electric circuit
In order to obtain a desired value of
current in an electrical circuit, a
number of resistances have to be
used. Resistances can be combined
together in the following three ways:
i) series combination
ii) parallel combination
iii) mixed combination
 Resistances in series
• The current has a single path for its flow.
Hence the same current passes through
each resistor and so the potential
difference across any resistor is directly
proportional to its resistance.
• The potential difference across the entire
circuit is equal to the sum of the potential
differences across the individual resistors.
 Resistances in series

V=V1+V2+V3
The resistance of the combination Rs equals the sum of
their individual resistances, R1, R2, R3, and is thus greater
than any individual resistance.
Rs=R1 + R2 +R3
 Resistances in parallel
• The potential difference across each
resistance is the same which is equal to the
potential difference across the terminals of
the battery.
• The current in a resistor is inversely
proportional to its resistance. The sum of the
currents I1, I2, I3 … etc in the separate
branches of the parallel circuit is equal to the
current I drawn from the source.

I  I1  I2  I3
 Resistances in parallel
• The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a
group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to
the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.

1 1 1 1
  
RP R1 R2 R3
Advantage of connecting electrical devices
in parallel
• There is no division of voltage among the
appliances when connected in parallel.
• The potential difference across each
appliance is equal to the supplied voltage.
The total effective resistance of the circuit
can be reduced by connecting electrical
appliances in parallel.
 Why do we use parallel circuit arrangement for
domestic wiring?
A parallel circuit divides the current through the
electrical appliances. The total resistance in a
parallel circuit is decreased. This is helpful
particularly when each gadget has different
resistance and requires different current to operate
properly. When one component of the circuit fails
rest of them work properly.
Why do we use parallel circuit arrangement for
domestic wiring?
What are the disadvantages of connecting electrical
devices in series?
In a series circuit the same amount of current
passes throughout the electric circuit. This is
impractical to connect an electric bulb and an
electric heater in series; because they need
currents of widely different values to operate
properly. Another major disadvantage of a series
circuit is that when one component fails the
circuit is broken and none of the components
works.
What are the disadvantages of connecting electrical
devices in series?
 Heating effect of electric current

The effect of electric current due to

which heat is produced in a wire
when current is passed through it is
called heating effect of current or
Joule heating.
 Joule’s law of heating
The amount of heat produced in a conductor
is:
(i) Directly proportional to the squire of the
current through the conductor i.e. H a I2
(ii) Directly proportional to the resistance of
the conductor i.e. H a R
(iii) Directly proportional to the time for
which the current is passed i.e. H a t
Expression for work done in a conductor

W Q x V
But Q  I x t and V  I x R
W I x t x I x R
W I x R x t
2
 Why does the cord of an electric heater not glow
while the heating element does?
The heating element of an electric heater is a
resistor. The amount of heat produced by it is
proportional to its resistance. The resistance of the
element of an electric heater is very high. As
current flows through the heating element, it
becomes too hot and glows red. On the other
hand, the resistance of the cord is low. It does not
become red when current flows through it.
 Electric power

Electric power of an appliance is the

rate at which it consumes electric
energy.
OR
It is the rate at which work is done in
maintaining an electric current in an
electric circuit.
 Expression for Electric power

W VIt
Electric power P    VI
t t
P  VI  IRxI  I R
2

2
V
P
R
 SI unit of Electric power

SI unit of power is watt.

One watt is the power consumed by

a device that carries 1A of current
when operated at a potential
difference of 1V.
 Watt-hour
Watt-hour is defined as the electric
energy consumed by an appliance of
1 watt in one hour.
Commercial unit of electrical energy
The commercial unit of electrical
energy is kilowatt hour (kWh).
 Kilo Watt-hour
A kilowatt-hour is the energy
supplied in 1 hour to an appliance
whose power is 1kW or 1000W.
1kWh = 1 kilowatt x 1 hour = 1000
watt x 3600 seconds
6
= 3.6 x 10 watt second.
1kWh = 3.6x106 J
Exercise (MCQ)

82
1. A piece of wire of resistance R is cut into five
equal parts. These parts are then connected in
parallel. If the equivalent resistance of this
combination is R′, then the ratio R/R′ is:
(a) 1/25
(b) 1/5
(c) 5
(d) 25

83
2. Which of the following terms does
not represent electrical power in a
circuit?
(a) I2R
(b) IR2
(c) VI
(d) V2/R

84
3. An electric bulb is rated 220 V and
100 W. When it is operated on 110 V,
the power consumed will be:
(a) 100 W
(b) 75 W
(c) 50 W
(d) 25 W

85
4. Two conducting wires of the same
material and of equal lengths and equal
diameters are first connected in series and
then parallel in a circuit across the same
potential difference. The ratio of heat
produced in series and parallel
combinations would be:
(a) 1:2
(b) 2:1
(c) 1:4
(d) 4:1 86
 END

Prepared by Girish.N, Bengaluru 9844217032