DIY SOLAR

PROJECTS
for Beginners

Small and Easy Projects to Whole-Home Systems That Use

the Sun

ERIC SMITH
 Contents

Introduction
A Look Into the Future

SOLAR ELECTRICITY
The Solar-Powered Home
Assembling a Solar Electric System
Mounting Solar Panels
Stand Alone Solar Light System
Solar-Powered Security Light

SOLAR HEAT
Collecting the Heat of the Sun
Solar Oven
Solar Water Heaters
Solar Hot Air Collector – Window Mount
Hot Air Collector – Roof Mount
Solar Still

APPENDIX
Resource Guide
Credits
Glossary
Conversions
Index
 Introduction

Every hour of every day enough solar energy falls on the Earth to
supply the entire planet with power for a year. The energy is
completely free and non-polluting; there’s no danger of an oil spill,
no mountaintop removal, no toxic waste, no smog, no nuclear
meltdowns, and no monthly bill. Plus, it will keep coming for at least
a few billion years.
The only catch is that we haven’t entirely figured out how to harvest
as much as we need. We’re making progress, but we’re not there
yet.
This book is a primer on how you can begin. You don’t have to stand
on the sidelines waiting for scientists to invent the perfect solar cell.
There are cost-effective, efficient ways to harvest solar energy right
now. Solar cookers, solar hot water heaters and solar hot air
collectors, to name a few, can all be made using standard building
materials available from home centers, and they save money and
energy right away. Even photovoltaic panels, which are still widely
thought to be too expensive for the average homeowner, sometimes
wind up being cheaper than conventional power after you factor in
rebates, tax credits and money earned when you generate more
electricity than you use. And if you live (or would like to live!) off the
grid, solar cells are actually the cheapest power source.
The term “solar power” is really a bit misleading. Solar power is not
just big arrays of solar panels. There are two essential strategies for
harnessing solar power. The first uses photovoltaic cells to convert
light to electricity; depending on the size and number of panels, cells
can power anything from a pocket calculator to an entire city.
However, the basic building block–the cells–have to be
manufactured. The second type of solar power involves
concentrating and converting sunlight to heat; the technology to do
that is simple enough to be understood by children, relatively
inexpensive, and very DIY friendly. If you can glue aluminum foil to
cardboard or cover a wooden box with a piece of glass you can
make a working solar collector and start saving real money
immediately.
In this book we’ll explore both types of solar power, explaining how-
to projects that you can build with basic tools and skills. We’ll show
you how to heat your own water, warm up your house, dry your own
lumber, make your own distilled water and do other projects that
turn solar heat into reduced utility bills. We’ll also explain the basics
of solar electricity, from battery charging and simple lights and
pumps to sophisticated whole-house systems, and show you simple
ways you can make use of solar electric technology right now.
Most home centers carry all the materials you need to get started
with solar thermal projects like hot water heaters, and some sell
solar panels and plug-and-play systems. If you want to go further
and jump into more complex projects, you can find suppliers in the
Resource Guide who will help you put together anything from a
battery-charging station to a large, whole-house solar system.
The sun is shining. Let’s get started.
 A Look into the Future

Solar technology is advancing rapidly, but the basic ideas behind it

have been around for a very long time. More than two thousand
years ago, Greeks, Romans, Chinese and others were starting fires
by concentrating and focusing the rays of the sun, and structures
have been built and oriented to collect—or block—solar heat for at
least that long. The first known solar cooker was used in the 1830s,
and the first solar cell was developed in 1876. The photoelectric
effect—the process whereby light creates electricity—was explained
by Albert Einstein in 1905. Turning the abundant sunlight that falls
on the earth every day into useful energy is a dream that has been
pursued for centuries, but only recently has manufacturing
technology advanced to the point where these dreams can begin to
be realized by almost anyone.
Fossil fuels are slowly but very definitely running out, even as the
world’s energy needs increase. All the fossil fuel that will ever be
available on earth, including uranium for nuclear power, is less than
half of the amount of solar energy received on earth every year. And
solar energy will never run out.
All over the world scientists are experimenting with new materials
and techniques to harvest this energy, and new ways to improve the
efficiency of materials being used now, such as silicon.
Photosynthesis in plants is being studied for clues about how to
make better solar cells, since plants make much more efficient use
of the sun’s energy than silicon cells currently do. Fuel cells, which
can use solar power to convert water into hydrogen fuel using solar
or other renewable power, are being researched as an alternative to
batteries. Even impossible-sounding ideas like placing giant solar
panel arrays in orbit, where they can harvest ten times as much
power as they do on earth, are being seriously considered.
Even though we don’t yet know what it will look like or what the
infrastructure that makes it work on a large scale will look like, solar
technology is our future.

Solar panels are combined with solar hot water collectors (the panels along
the ridge) to provide electricity, hot water and heat for this home.
Solar power plants are most cost-effective in parched desert areas where
the sky is usually clear. This array provides power for an air force base in
Nevada.
With a few photovoltaic panels and storage batteries, isolated areas miles off the electric
grid, like this village on Surin Island in Thailand, can have reliable power for modern
convenience.
Solar Electricity
When NASA scientists of the 1950s needed a revolutionary source of
power for their spacecraft, they had to look and think beyond the
earth. Their challenge was monumental, yet their solution poetically
simple: They would find a way to tap into the most abundant, most
accessible, and most reliable source of energy in the solar system—
the sun.
Producing your own electricity with photovoltaics, or PV, is certainly
one of the most exciting and rewarding ways of going green.
Homeowners everywhere are using the sun to generate electrical
power, and also to heat water for their showers, heating systems,
and even swimming pools. The economic benefits can be significant,
and when you consider that supplying the average home with
conventional power creates over three tons of carbon emissions
each year (over twice that of the average car), the environmental
benefits of pollution-free solar energy are nothing to squint at.
This chapter introduces you to the most popular solar options for
supplementing your existing systems or even declaring energy
independence by taking your home “off the grid.” As solar
technology continues its journey from the space program to
suburban rooftops and beyond, anyone serious about climbing
aboard will find a vibrant new marketplace that’s more than ready to
help.
IN THIS CHAPTER
The Solar-Powered Home
Assembling a Solar Electric System
Mounting Solar Panels
Stand-Alone Solar Light System
Solar-Powered Security Light
With every passing year, solar panels become more efficient and less expensive. The day
when a solar panel array is installed on every roof to provide power for the home and for
the larger electrical grid may not be too far off.
The Solar-Powered Home
Residential PV systems supply electricity directly to a home through solar
panels mounted on the roof or elsewhere. These are essentially the same
systems that pioneering homeowners installed back in the 1970s. In those
days, however, panels were less efficient and much more expensive than
the average of $9 per watt today (and people in many areas can cut that
number in half with renewable-energy rebates and tax credits).

Here’s how PV power works: A solar panel is made up of small solar

cells, each containing a thin slice of silicon, the same material used
widely in the computer industry. Silicon is an abundant natural
resource extracted from the earth’s crust. It has semi-conductive
properties, so that when light strikes the positive side of the slice,
electrons try to move to the negative side. Connecting the two sides
with a wire creates an electrical circuit and a means for harnessing
this electrical activity.
Solar cells are grouped together and connected by wires to create a
module, or panel. Modules can be installed in a series to create a
solar “array.” The size of an array, as well as the quality of the
semiconductor material, determines its power output.
The electricity produced by solar cells is DC, or direct current, which
is what most batteries produce (and what battery-powered devices
run on). Most household appliances and light fixtures run on AC, or
alternating current, electricity. Therefore, PV systems include an
inverter that converts the DC power from the panels to AC power for
use in the home. It’s all the same to your appliances, and they run
just as well on solar-generated power as on standard utility power.
Solar electric panels provide all the power for this super-efficient house.
Grid-Connected & Off-the-Grid Systems
Home PV systems can be designed to connect to the local utility
network (the power grid) or to supply the home with all of its
electricity without grid support. There are advantages and
disadvantages to each configuration.
In a grid-connected setup, the utility system serves as a backup to
supply power when household demand exceeds the solar system’s
capacity or during the hours when the sun is down. This elimates
the need for batteries or a generator for backup, and makes grid-
connected systems simpler and less expensive than off-the-grid
systems. One of the best advantages of grid connection is that when
the solar system’s output exceeds the house’s demand, excess
power is delivered back to the grid and the homeowner often gets
credit for every watt produced. This is called net-metering and is
guaranteed by law in many states; however, not every state requires
utility companies to offer it, and not all companies offer the same
payback. Some simply let the meter roll backwards, essentially
giving you full retail value for the power, while others buy back
power at the utility’s standard production price—much less than
what they charge consumers.
The main drawbacks of being tied to the grid are that you may still
have to pay service charges for the utility connection even if your
net consumption is zero, and you’re still vulnerable to power outages
at times when you’re drawing from the grid. But the convenience of
grid backup along with the lower cost and reduced maintenance of
grid-connected systems make them the most popular choice among
homeowners in developed areas.
Off-the-grid, or standalone, systems serve as the sole supply of
electricity for a home. They include a large enough panel array to
meet the average daily demand of the household. During the day,
excess power is stored in a bank of batteries for use when the sun is
down or when extended cloud cover results in low output. Most
standalone systems also have a gas-powered generator as a
separate, emergency backup.
For anyone building a new home in an undeveloped area, installing a
complete solar system to provide your own power can be less
expensive than having the utility company run a line out to the
house (beyond a quarter-mile or so, new lines can be very costly).
There are some maintenance costs such as battery replacement, but
it’s possible to save a lot of money in the long run, and never having
to pay a single electric bill is deeply satisfying to off-the-grid
homeowners.
As mentioned, off-the-grid systems are a little more complicated
than grid-connected setups. There are the batteries to care for, and
power levels have to be monitored to prevent excessive battery run-
down and to know when generator backup is required. To minimize
power demands, off-the-grid homes tend to be highly energy-
efficient. Installing super-efficient appliances is a major step towards
making a smaller, less expensive solar array satisfy the home’s
energy needs. Smaller steps, such as connecting chargers and other
electronic devices to a power strip that can be turned off when the
devices are not in use, also help by eliminating small but cumulative
energy losses. If you’re interested in taking your home off the grid,
talk with as many experts and off-the-grid homeowners as you can.
Their experiences can teach you invaluable lessons for successful
energy independence.
 Polycrystalline silicon is used in almost all photovoltaic
panels to convert photons of light into electricity.

Grid-connected systems rely on the utility company for supplemental and backup energy.
Off-the-grid systems are self-sufficient; they use batteries for energy storage and a
generator (usually gas-powered) for backup supply.
Mounting solar arrays on the ground offers greater flexibility in placement when rooftop
installation is impractical, or is prohibited by local building codes or homeowners
associations.

Solar Panel Products

PV modules come in a range of types for different applications and
power needs. The workhorse of the group is the glass- or plastic-
covered rigid panel that can be mounted to the roof of a house or
other structure, on an exterior wall, or on the ground at various
distances from the house. Panel arrays can also be mounted onto
solar-powered tracking systems that follow the sun for increased
productivity.
Rigid modules, sometimes called framed modules, are designed to
withstand all types of weather, including hail, snow, and extreme
winds; manufacturers typically offer warranties of 20 to 25 years.
Common module sizes range from about 2 ft. to 4 ft. in width and
from 2 ft. to 6 ft. in length. Smaller modules often weigh less than
10 pounds, while large panels may be 30 to 50 pounds each.
In addition to variations in size, shape, wattage rating and other
specifications, standard PV modules can be made with two different
types of silicon cells. Monocrystalline cells contain a higher grade of
silicon and offer the best efficiency of sunlight-to-electricity
conversion, but are more difficult and expensive to make.
Multicrystalline, or polycrystalline, cells are made with a less exacting
and thus cheaper manufacturing process. Solar conversion of these
is slightly less than that of monocrystalline cells, but warranties on
panels may be comparable. All solar cells degrade slowly over time.
Standard monocrystalline and multicrystalline cells typically lose
0.25% to 0.5% of their conversion efficiency each year.

Amorphous Solar Cells

Another group of solar products is made with amorphous, or thin-
film, technology in which noncrystalline silicon is deposited onto
substrates such as glass or stainless steel. Some substrates are
flexible, allowing for a range of versatile products such as self-
adhesive strips that can be rolled out and adhered to metal roofing,
and thin solar modules that install just like traditional roof shingles.
Amorphous modules typically offer lower efficiency—roughly half
that of crystalline—and a somewhat faster degradation of 1% or
more per year.

The Economics of Going Solar

While the environmental benefits of solar electricity are obvious and
irrefutable, most people looking into adding a new solar system need
to examine the personal financial implications of doing so.
Installing solar panels over an arbor, pergola, or other overhead structure can create a
unique architectural element. Here, panels over an arbor provide shade for a patio space
while generating electricity for the house.
This fiber-cement shingle roof features an integrated array of shingles laminated with thin-
film PV modules.

PV systems cost only a small fraction of what they did 30 years ago,
but they’re still quite expensive. For example, a three-kilowatt
system capable of supplying most or all of the electricity for a typical
green home can easily cost $30,000 (before rebates and credits) and
take 20 to 25 years to pay for itself in reduced energy bills. An off-
the-grid system will cost even more. Nevertheless, depending on the
many factors at play, going solar can be a sound investment with a
potentially high rate of return.
One way to consider solar as an investment is to think of it as paying
for a couple of decades’ worth of electricity bills in advance. Thanks
to the long warranties offered by manufacturers and the reliability of
today’s systems, the costs of maintenance on a system are
predictably low. This means that most of your total expense goes
toward the initial setup of the system. If you divide the setup cost
(after rebates and credits) by the number of kilowatt hours (kWh)
the system will produce over its estimated lifetime, you’ll come up
with a perkWh price that you can compare against your current
utility rate. Keep in mind that your solar rate, as it were, is locked in,
while utility rates are almost certain to rise over the lifetime of your
system.
Now, about those rebates and credits: In many areas, homeowners
going solar can receive sizable rebates through state, local, or utility-
sponsored programs, in addition to federal tax credits, as applicable.
All told, these financial incentives can add up to 50% or more of the
total setup cost of a new PV system. To find out about what
incentives are available through any of these sources, check out the
Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency at
[Link]. Established solar businesses in any given area
are also very well informed about incentives available to local
residents.
Here are some of the factors that tend to affect the cost of a PV
system, its effectiveness or efficiency, and the homeowner’s return
on investment:
The house and geographic location—how much sun reaches the
house; the roof’s slope and roofing material
Electric utility rates and net-metering rates
Increased home value—PV systems and other energy-saving
upgrades can increase a home’s resale value (often without
raising the property value used for tax assessment)
Loan rate, if the system is financed
Being off the grid means no electric bill, no concerns about rate hikes, and no utility-based
power outages.

With so many factors to consider, getting to the bottom line can be

complicated. Full-service solar companies will perform a cost/benefit
analysis to help potential customers make a decision based on the
financial picture. Of course, you should always check their numbers
and scrutinize any variables used. You can also learn a lot by talking
to other homeowners in your area who have had similar systems
installed. Are they getting the return they expected? Have their
systems been reliable and low-maintenance? Would they change
anything if given the chance to do it over?

Working with Solar Professionals

Companies that provide solar equipment and system design,
installation, and maintenance services are rising in number every
year. A few of these were around during the lean years of the 1980s
and 90s, but many more have sprouted up in the last decade or so.
In any case, this is now a highly competitive industry, so you can,
and should, expect great service at competitive prices.
The reputation and reliability of your local solar provider are
important considerations, but perhaps more important is the stability
of the original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) who produce the
main parts of your system and who carry those long warranties.
Many of these are large, well-established companies with expertise
in energy and/or electronics, so it’s a good bet they’ll be around in
20 or 25 years to honor their product warranties. Always discuss
warranties carefully with your solar provider.
Professional installation may run you around 15% of the total
system cost—quite a low rate for the home improvement industry—
and that amount is subject to rebates and credits, which are based
on installed system prices.
Before giving you a quote for the system package, a solar provider
will want to know about your home, what type of roofing you have,
and what the southern exposure is like. To ballpark the size of
system you’ll need, they’ll probably look at your utility bills from the
past year and ask how much power you want to get from solar: Will
it cover all household demand or just a portion of it? You may have
to pay a fee to cover the provider’s legwork required for working up
an accurate quote.
Services likely to be included in a provider’s system package are:
Complete system design and installation
Guarantees on workmanship/installation
Obtaining building/electrical permits
Coordinating hookup with utility company
Obtaining rebates and credits
Help with OEM warranty claims
Lifetime technical support
Another thing to be aware of when comparing various providers’
quotes, and in talking to other customers, is the actual output of a
panel or array as opposed to its STC (or “name plate”) wattage
rating. Industry sources say the actual usable power of a system is
typically about 75% of the rated power. This means that if your
home needs three kilowatts of power your system should be rated
for four kilowatts.

Solar Panel Safety

Solar panels and the various components they work with have a
green, environmentally friendly feeling to them that makes it easy to
let down your guard and forget normal safety rules. But remember
that electricity from a solar panel can cause just as much damage as
electricity from utility lines. Also remember that PV panels start
generating electricity as soon as the light hits them, so cover them
up or follow manufacturer safety recommendations until you’re done
installing.
First, always make sure you have necessary safety equipment like
safety glasses, hardhats, work gloves and harnesses for roof work.
Make sure you understand the electrical systems you’re working on;
if you’re uncomfortable or confused, call an electrician to help out, or
talk to the electrical inspector.
Any PV system that’s big enough to provide power to a house needs
charge controllers, fuses, inverters and circuit breakers (often both
DC and AC). Full-service suppliers will provide complete systems
with all the safety equipment, but if you’re putting a system together
on your own from discount components you bought on the internet,
read up on the subject before you get started.
Solar panels have metal frames and must always be grounded,
whether they’re on the roof or a pole in the yard. Big metal objects
outdoors can attract lightning strikes, and you need to be sure that if
your array is hit, the energy will dissipate into the ground—not into
your house.
Start by attaching 6-gauge bare copper wire to the metal frame of
each PV panel with stainless steel bolts and star washers (or follow
manufacturer recommendations). If the panels are on the house,
connect the grounding wire to a separate ground rod and bond to
the house grounding electrode system, either directly or through a
grounding lug in the main circuit breaker box or a mechanical
connection with the main ground wire. If the panels are on an
outbuilding or a pole away from the house, you’ll need to install a
separate ground rod at that location. Use an 8-ft.-long solid copper
ground rod ½" dia. or larger (sold at home centers), and pound it
almost all the way into the ground, leaving just a few inches
exposed. Attach the wire with a ground rod clamp. You’ll also need
to run 6-gauge wire underground back to the main house ground
wire so all of your grounds are interconnected.
Check with your local electrical inspector about grounding
recommendations in your area. If you live in an area with lots of
lightning strikes, you may need to add additional grounding
protection.

Wear a proper safety harness when working on a steep roof.

Lightning can strike anywhere, and solar panel arrays need to be
properly grounded to protect them, and you, against damage.
Electricity from solar panels is just as dangerous as the kind that
comes over the utility lines, especially for large, whole-house arrays.
You may want to call in a pro to help with the final hookups.
Remember to install all required fuses, charge controllers and circuit
breakers to ensure the safety of the system and the people using it.
Applications for Solar Energy

Solar panel manufacturers have found a growing market for their

products in countries that lack a reliable electrical grid.
A south-facing porch roof was added on to this house both for the solar panels and to
make a cool outdoor sitting area.

The house is over a hundred years old, but the PV panels and the solar hot water collector
in the background complement the architecture perfectly.
Silicon–From Raw Material to Solar Cell

Photovoltaic panels made from polycrystalline silicon (top) have a visibly flaky appearance
and are less expensive than monocrystalline cells (above). Both are covered by a panel of
tempered glass in front and a plastic panel in the rear.
The initial investment required to be self-sufficient in energy is significant, but so is the
reward of being able to live off-grid with all the modern comforts.
Two elements of an energy-efficient house: The photovoltaic panels provide most of the
electricity, while the white roof reflects the sunlight and keeps the house cooler,
substantially reducing energy demand.
Power and communications for a small village have been set up in an open field cleared in
the jungle.
Assembling a Solar Electric System
Solar electric power is fascinating, exciting, and–as anyone who’s
browsed through the catalogs and websites can attest–kind of confusing.
A solar panel wired directly to a fan or a light makes sense: sunlight is
converted directly to power, much like the way sunlight is converted to
heat. But as the solar panels get larger, you need fuses, charge controllers,
inverters, system monitors, and other mysterious and expensive
components that begin to turn the fascination and excitement of
photovoltaics into a difficult homework assignment.

This extra equipment is required because solar panels produce DC

power and store it in batteries, and that power must be regulated
and controlled. The AC power coming from utility lines is not stored–
it’s generated and used on demand. DC power is different; it’s all
right there, sitting inside an innocent-looking battery like a caged
lightning bolt, and if there’s a problem like a short-circuit you can
end up with melted wires, fried electronics and even fires.
To help visualize how it all works, we’ve put together a series of
sample systems, starting with a basic panel powering a light and
continuing up to a whole house. We’ll explain what you can do with
different sizes of solar panels and what the add-on components are
for–and why you need them. None of the pieces of a complete
system are hard to understand once you know what they do, and
you don’t need to be an electrical engineer to put everything
together. Any reputable, full-service supplier will make sure you have
everything you need, including detailed instructions, and your local
electrical inspector will also let you know if you’re doing anything
wrong (you generally need a permit for anything bigger than plug-
and-play systems).
Photovoltaic systems start with a few simple connections, then grow in
complexity with the size of the array. You don’t need to understand all the
components of a large system right away—just grab a small panel and aim
it at the sun, and the rest will fall into place.
1. A Starter System with Low-Watt Panel
In this type of low-wattage system power flows directly from the
solar panel to a DC motor, light, roof fan or battery. When the sun is
out, the device works; as the sun goes down, the device slows down
and finally stops. A low-wattage panel like this (less than 5 watts)
can also be used to top off a 12V battery or keep a battery that’s in
storage charged during the winter, because the amount of power
generated is low enough that there’s no danger of overcharging.
Solar-powered garden lights are slightly more sophisticated because
the panel charges a small rechargeable battery during the day
instead of powering the light directly. The battery then powers the
light when it gets dark.

Cell phone chargers are small and lightweight, and generally produce 5
watts or less of power. A basic solar panel like this doesn’t store power
—it will only charge the cell phone when the sun is out.
The essence of a photovoltaic system: A solar panel converts light to electric energy,
which is used or stored in a battery.
A solar drip charger is connected to the terminals of a car, RV or boat
battery to keep it fully charged when it is not in use for extended
periods of time.
Portable, foldable solar panels are small enough to fit in a backpack or
pocket, but have enough power to keep electronic gizmos charged up. You
can even plug one into your car’s cigarette lighter to top off the battery.
2. More Watts Equals More Power
As with the starter system, the DC motor in the pump used to refill
this stock tank is powered directly by the solar panel, with no
battery, and will not operate unless the sun is out. However, when
the sun is out, the pump will operate more efficiently and produce
more water than it would if the solar energy flowed through a
battery, because up to a quarter of the energy generated by a solar
panel can be lost when it is stored in a battery. The pump is given
another boost by a linear current booster, which provides extra
power to the pump when the light is low.
This type of system needs a larger panel to operate—typically 50 to
60 watts or more—and is usually sized by the solar panel dealer
based on the well depth, pump size and other factors. It’s the
perfect system for the stock tank; the supply of water stockpiled in
the tank on sunny days is more than enough for the demand, so no
battery is needed. Roof vent fans, and pond pumps for water
circulation and small fountains are other types of solar-powered
fixtures that use power directly from the PV panels without a battery
because they don’t need to run at night.
Once powered by a windmill that needed frequent maintenance, this
deep well, which pumps water to a nearby stock tank, is now powered
directly by solar panels. Instead of pumping on demand, the motor
pumps water continuously when the sun is out and stores it in a large
tank.
Water for irrigation is continuously pumped from a deep acquifer up to
this storage tank during the day as long as the sun is shining.
A solar-powered roof vent fan draws hot air from the attic during the
day when the sun is out–the time when the attic is hottest. This type
of fan generally does not include a battery, and is powered directly by
the solar panel (although some manufacturers offer models with
backup wind or AC power).
A multimeter is a good diagnostic tool for checking a photovoltaic
panel to ensure it is working properly. It also allows you to check the
power generated at different angles and locations.
3. Portable Power
This type of system begins to look more familiar, with a storage
battery and a few AC outlets that can be used to power small
appliances, electronics, lights, and even power tools. “Plug-and-play”
type systems are generally under 100 watts, and are often small
enough to be portable. Think of them as a silent alternative to a
small gas-powered generator. They’re useful for camping,
emergency power, recreation, powering small garages and utility
buildings and similar uses. You can find pre-packaged systems at
suppliers, or you can assemble your own from the individual
components. In this system several additional pieces of electrical
equipment are added between the solar panel and the devices using
the power:
Charge controller. A charge controller regulates the amount of
power going into the battery, and prevents the battery from
being overcharged.
12V battery. The battery stores energy collected when the sun
is out, making power available at night.
Inverter. The inverter converts DC (Direct Current) power
coming from the battery into AC (Alternating Current) power,
which is what most appliances and electronics use. Although DC
appliances and lights are available, the selection is limited and
often more expensive. However, DC appliances and lights don’t
require the inverter.
A small catastrophe fuse is a safety feature, and is placed on
the positive wire between the battery and the PV panel.
A simple solar power system makes life in a yurt much easier. Inside the yurt a battery
provides electricity for a few small appliances and a light.
Solar power road signs are a common sight on highways. The light
is plugged into a battery, which stores power produced by the PV
panel. A charge controller keeps the battery from overcharging.
Buoy lights are a perfect use for a solar panel and battery. No other
power source comes close to working as well and as cheaply for this
application.
A solar panel and a small deep-cycle battery are a cleaner, quieter and lighter source of
temporary power for a trip away from the power grid.
4. Off-Grid System for a Small Cabin or Weekend House
This system is large enough for a small, energy-efficient off-grid
cabin or vacation home, providing power for lights, a well,
electronics and a few basic appliances. If you do the installation and
wiring yourself, the components for a system like this can be
surprisingly affordable; some online dealers sell packages for $2,000
to $5,000. A small gas-powered generator or windmill can also be
added to the system if needed for a backup power source during
cloudy periods.
Larger houses or houses with lots of power-hungry appliances need
additional solar panels and batteries, based on the size of the house,
the power usage, location and other factors. Solar panel suppliers
can help you size the system, and additional panels and batteries
can be always be added in the future.
The additional components used in this system are:
DC safety disconnect. The safety disconnect allows you to shut
off the flow of power from the panels to the battery for
maintenance or repairs.
DC load center. The DC equivalent of a circuit-breaker box.
AC circuit breaker. This is a small version of the circuit-breaker
box found in almost every home.
System monitor. A system monitor tracks power consumption and
will let you know if your batteries are getting dangerously low
(fully discharging a deep-cycle battery will shorten its life).
Although this back-country cabin only has a small number of panels, they
generate power all week, providing plenty of energy for a cabin used only
on weekends.
This small, energy-efficient modern house uses PV panels for power. Energy is conserved
with energy-efficient appliances, extra insulation, a light-colored roof to deflect heat, and
louver-shaded windows.
A camper van this size consumes as much energy as a small house, all of which would
normally be generated by idling the motor. Although the large solar panels are a significant
investment, they pay for themselves quickly in this desert campground, and they’re also
completely silent.
5. Whole House, Grid-Connected System
A whole-house system connected to the power grid will need an
array of solar panels producing several thousand watts of power to
meet household needs (depending on house size, energy efficiency
and other factors), but the system is fairly straightforward, especially
if you dispense with the battery backup. Power flows to a grid-tied
inverter designed to work with the utility-system electrical grid. The
incoming DC power from the solar panels is converted to AC with an
inverter, then fed into the house circuit-breaker box and used just
like power from the utility company. Any power that’s not needed
flows into the electrical grid through a production meter, running the
meter backwards. The electrical grid functions like a battery,
absorbing extra power or providing it, as needed. If you create more
power than you use, most utility companies will pay you or credit
you for the excess.
One of the advantages of this type of system is that you can start
small, then add additional solar panels later. It also eliminates the
need for expensive batteries and ensures a continuous, reliable flow
of power. However, if the utility company suffers a blackout, the
solar panels will not be able to provide power to the house unless
you have a battery backup system in place.
If your house already has power lines coming in from the utility company, it makes sense
to leave them connected when you install solar panels so you can use the electrical grid
for storage and backup.
This house is still connected to the electrical grid, but with the entire south side of the roof
covered with solar panels, the homeowner generates enough electricity on sunny days to
earn money back from the utility company.
Power generated by wind or water supplements solar-generated
power, providing an alternative source of power at night or in cloudy
weather. It can also be wired to the same grid-tied system that the
solar panels are connected to.
BATTERIES

Charging batteries with power from a solar panel is simple and straightforward.
There’s no need for an inverter to change the DC power produced by the panel to AC,
since batteries store power in DC form (it’s not possible to store AC power in
batteries). Chargers are available for any size or type of rechargeable battery,
including batteries in computers, cell phones, cameras and other electronic devices.
Small rechargeable batteries (AAA through 9V) are sold most places where regular
batteries are sold, and can be used anywhere standard batteries are used. Nowdays
most are nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), which are less toxic than nickel-cadmium
(NiCad) batteries. Small, portable solar chargers that can charge all the different
sizes are available at internet sites that sell solar products (see Resources).
Charging the larger 6-, 12- and 24-volt batteries used for off-grid and backup power
can get a little more complicated, with unique maintenance and use requirements. If
you’re interested in setting up an off-grid system, talk to an expert or the people who
sell the solar equipment about recommended batteries. Large battery assemblies for
off-grid living are expensive, and if they’re not properly maintained they can fail
quickly.
Solar power can be used to recharge any size or type of battery, as long as it’s a
rechargeable type.
A FEW IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT BATTERIES

Batteries sold for cars are designed to pump out a lot of power quickly, but will
rapidly break down if used for long periods of low power output, so they can’t be used
for an off-grid power source. However, they can still be charged with PV panels.

Always buy “deep-cycle” batteries for storing solar power. Deep-cycle batteries can
safely discharge most (but not all!) of the power stored in them between charges.
The least expensive deep-cycle batteries are marine types; the most expensive are
those sold for industrial applications. Life expectancy runs from 2 to 25 years, with
prices based on life expectancy. It’s a good idea to start with marine batteries, then
work up to the expensive, longer-lasting types.

Batteries used for both cars and off-grid power storage are lead-acid types. Newer
battery technologies like nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) are still too expensive for large
battery arrays, though this could change soon.

Solar charging a battery, no matter what size, always takes longer than charging the
same battery from a standard AC outlet. Depending on what you’re charging and how
low the battery is, it could take several hours to several days.

Lead-acid batteries are available as either “wet cells” or sealed cells. Wet-cell
batteries have removable caps and must be refilled with distilled water periodically.
Sealed cells are permanently sealed and never need refilling, but they’re more
expensive and need to be charged at a lower voltage than wet cells.

Always use charge controllers between the solar panel and the battery, unless the
solar panel is a small (5 watts or less) trickle-charging type just used to top off the
battery when it’s in storage.

Large batteries need fuses between the solar panel and the battery and circuit
breakers or fuse boxes between the battery and appliance or fixture. (Note that
systems for houses can be purchased with all electrical and safety components
preassembled into one unit. See Resources).
With the proper charge controllers and wiring, deep-cycle
batteries will accept power from several different sources.
These two solar panels and small fan provide just enough
power for the electronics and lights on this sailboat.
Solar chargers for small electronics generally have a small battery
inside that builds up power for charging when you leave it out in the
sun.
Mounting Solar Panels
Mounting solar panels so that they’ll stay in place through weather, high
winds and ground movement for 25 years or more is probably the most
demanding part of any installation. With so much surface area the panels
can catch gusts of wind almost as well as a sail. They also need to hold up
against rain, seasonal movement, snow loads, hail and whatever else
nature throws against them. They must be securely mounted and well-
anchored to the roof, ground, or side of the house with rust-resistant
metal poles and rack systems, and the best stainless-steel hardware, and
they should be checked periodically for loose fasteners.

Although home-built solar water and heat collectors can be mounted

on wood posts on the ground, solar PV panels have a longer life
expectancy and are best mounted on steel or aluminum supports
that can hold up to the weather indefinitely, especially up on a roof.
If the panels are roof-mounted, the condition of the roof should also
be evaluated before they’re installed. The panels can last 20 to 25
years or more, and if the roof is going to need replacement before
then it’s best to do it before installing the panels so you can avoid
the expense of removing and reinstalling the panels later.
Needless to say, it’s important that the panels face the sun as
directly as possible and get at least six hours per day—without
shading—year-round. Spend some time on research and observation
before you proceed with installation to avoid putting up panels that
only get sufficient sun for half the year.
Solar panel dealers can recommend mounting systems for the panels
they sell, but the following pages will give you a basic overview,
along with some ideas for a simple mounting system you can build
yourself.
The large surface area of solar panels means that they must be very
securely mounted to resist the force of the wind.
To protect them against damage due to frost heave and ground movement, solar arrays
must be set on posts that go down to frost-footing depth, or at least 2 ft. When using
treated lumber, let it dry out for several weeks before using it so it doesn’t warp or shrink
under the panel.
Mounting thin-film solar panels can sometimes be as simple as gluing them to a metal
roof. Thin-film solar panels aren’t as efficient as standard solar panels in full light, but they
perform better in low-light conditions. They’re also flexible, cheaper to manufacture and
more versatile.
Ground-Mounted Panels and Collectors
Assuming your solar panel or collector works as it should, it will be
mounted outdoors on your house or in your yard for many years.
The supports holding it need to be the best quality and materials
possible.
Ground-mounted photovoltaic panels are generally attached to
galvanized steel poles set deeply into the ground and anchored in
concrete, with the depth of the hole, the amount of concrete and the
size of the steel post determined by the square footage and height
of the PV panel. For example, a single 3 ft. × 5 ft. (15 s.f.) panel set
five feet above the ground should be mounted on a 2½" Schedule
40 steel post (sold at home centers) and set into the ground at least
3 ft. (or to frost-footing depth in your area) in a 12"-diameter hole
filled with concrete. However, if four of the panels are mounted
together in an array (60 s.f.), you’d need to use a 4" post (actual
4½" O.D.), and set it a minimum of 4 ft. down in a 20- to 24"-
diameter hole. If the panel is higher than five feet, you’ll need to
make the hole 6" deeper for every extra foot of height. Local soil and
wind conditions may also necessitate a larger or deeper hole–it’s
best to get specific guidelines for your area and panels from your
dealer or building inspector.
Solar water or hot air collectors can be mounted on pressure-treated
posts buried in the ground or attached to post bases, or fastened to
steel U-channel supports. In either case the posts should be
anchored or set in concrete below the frost level, just as posts for a
deck would be, or set 2 ft. down if freezing is not a consideration.
Collectors or panels are also occasionally mounted to the side of a
house, but they must be securely fastened to the studs with
galvanized lag bolts. Mounting to the side of an aluminum- or vinyl-
sided house should be a last-ditch option though, as the large holes
created by the lag bolts are difficult or impossible to repair if the
collector is ever removed, unless you have pieces of the original
siding.
 PV panels are often installed on heavy metal pole mounts, embedded in a
cylinder of concrete and buried deep in the ground. The size and depth of
the post mount for a PV panel is based on the square footage of the panel
or panels, the height above the ground and local soil and wind conditions.
You also need to take into account snow levels and the furthest reach of
shadows cast by nearby trees and buildings throughout the year.

Manufactured solar hot water heaters should be mounted according

to manufacturer recommendations.
Always select a location for the solar panel that faces south and gets
at least six hours of unshaded sun year-round. If possible, mark the
furthest extent of shadows from nearby trees and buildings during
the winter, because winter shadows will be substantially longer than
summer shadows when the sun is higher overhead. If you can’t wait
until winter, consult a local dealer or installer for rough guidelines, or
check online for shadow calculators (see Resources). Also remember
to set the panel high enough so it’s well above the possible snow
level in the winter.
The mounting system used for this solar hot water collector straddles the ridge of the roof
so that the panels will face due south even though the house faces east/west.

Mounting solar panels does not always have to be a complicated job.

These molded supports for solar hot water panels are set at 45°—a
safe, compromise angle for year-round use in most of the country. The
wide base of the supports distributes the weight of the panels evenly
on the flat roof.
An unusual roof style and a NE/SW building orientation called for a
creative mounting solution for this evacuated-tube solar hot water
collector.
 A ROOF OR GROUND SUPPORT FOR SOLAR PANELS

You can make a sturdy support for either PV panels or solar

collectors by assembling lengths of Unistrut U-channel (sold at home
centers and electrical suppliers; see Resources) and then anchoring
them to the roof or ground. Use galvanized or stainless-steel pieces
and fasteners, and follow the same guidelines for selecting a location
and height.
Struts are available in several sizes, with a huge selection of
accessories for joining them in dozens of configurations, though you
may have to go online to find them. With a little hunting, you can
usually find the right combination for almost any location or roof
layout. We made ours from the basic accessories sold in the local
home center, but the basic design can be put together in any
number of ways with other types of fittings and fasteners.
A few considerations to keep in mind: Solar panels or hot water
heaters placed on a roof need to be bolted to the rafters every 4 to
6 ft. with stainless-steel or triple-galvanized lag bolts (at least 5/16 x
4"). These holes need to be waterproofed with extra care, as they
will be difficult to get to once the panels are up.

CUTTING LIST
Part / Number Dimensions
Base (2) 80"
Support (2) 92"
Back brace (2) 36"
Brace expanders (4) 20"
Cross braces (4) 48" (or to fit)
Build a simple, adjustable support from steel U-channel struts (above) for
either solar panels or the solar hot water collector (inset).
TOOLS & MATERIALS
Adjustable wrench
Socket set
Metal-cutting saw
1⅝" × 10' Galvanized Unistrut (if exterior-grade galvanized is unavailable, paint the
metal)
1⅝" × 3½" Unistrut angle brackets
1⅝ × 3½ Unistrut flat corner brackets
⅜" × 1½" bolts and Unistrut spring-loaded nuts
½" × 1½" bolts, nuts, washers
Speed Square
Hinges or L-bracket
Concrete mix
(2 or 4) Anchor bolts
Gravel
FINDING THE RIGHT ANGLE FOR A SOLAR COLLECTOR OR PV PANEL

First of all, the collector should face directly south and should not be shaded,
although the location doesn’t have to be perfect. Crystalline solar cells should not be
shaded at any part for at least six hours because shading even a small part will
diminish the energy collected by the whole array, but this is not as much of a problem
for thin-film solar cells or solar collectors. Solar panels and collectors are often put
on roofs to elevate them above trees and shade from buildings, but they work just as
well on the ground or attached to the side of a building as long as they have
sufficient sunlight.

The best tilt angle is not necessarily the same for PV panels and solar collectors. For
either one, though, start by finding your latitude (check online for latitude finders).
The best angle for a PV panel is the same degree as your latitude, though for
maximum efficiency you can move it 10° more in the winter and 10° less in the
summer. For example, at latitude 45 you would put it at 55° (from horizontal) in the
winter, 45° in the spring and fall, and 35° in the summer.

For a solar collector, on the other hand, add 15° to your latitude. For example, if you
live at latitude 45, the tilt angle is 60° from horizontal. Use your speed square, which
has angle markings on the outer edge, to mark this angle, then just adjust the
supports for the collector until it matches the angle. This angle is generally the best
for both winter and summer, because it faces the sun more directly in winter, but not
as directly in summer, which lessens the chance of overheating; if you can’t match it
exactly, several degrees either way won’t have much of an effect.

However, these are not absolute rules. Following the slope of your roof will usually be
close enough to the ideal that you won’t notice much difference. And it’s always a
good idea to talk to local dealers, installers or homeowners who have solar panels for
advice about local conditions.
 If you’re mounting the support on a sloped roof, use the speed square to
lay out the angles and determine the length of the back brace. Angles and
roof pitch are both marked on the square; just align the base strut with the
common rafter cut mark corresponding to your roof pitch, then align the
PV support strut with the degree mark for your latitude. For example, if
your roof slopes 4" in every 12" (a 4/12 pitch), the base strut will follow a
line from the pivot point through the number 4 on the “Common Cuts”
edge. The other strut follows the line from the pivot through the 45° mark
on the outside edge.

Solar panel dealers carry various options for flashing roof mounts
(see Resources). For shingled roofs, these are usually a bracket or
holder bolted to the rafter and then covered by flashing, a rubber
boot, rubber seals or some combination of these elements, with the
upper part of the flashing slipped under the shingle above the
holder. These mounts are the safest option when you’re installing
solar panels, as they’ve been tested and carry a manufacturer’s
warranty.
How to Make a Roof or Ground Support for Solar Panels

The easiest way to figure out the strut lengths is to lay the three pieces on
the ground, move the support piece to the proper angle using the angle
markings on the speed square as a guide, then mark the cuts. Use tape to
mark the location of the solar collector or panels and the points where the
adjustable support leg will be attached.
Cut the pieces to length. Cut the cross supports to match the width of the
solar collector or the length between mounting points on the PV panels.
Cut two additional pieces of strut to 4" less than the length of the expandable brace. Cut
the expandable brace in half, then bolt both halves to the long center leg with four bolts.
To expand the brace to the fall or winter position, just remove the bolts on one side, push
the frame up, and then bolt the pieces back together. (Note that solar collectors usually
stay in a fixed position year round, while PV panels benefit from being moved to summer
and winter positions.)
Bolt the brackets and struts together, but don’t join the two sides yet. Join the pieces at
the base with hinges, or just use an L-bracket with a bolt as the pivot, as we did.
Although the PV mount is stable, it needs to be securely anchored to
the ground in case of high winds. For larger arrays like ours, add
concrete footings at each corner.
Stand-Alone Solar Light System
One of the easiest ways to put photovoltaic panels to work around your
home is to purchase a self-contained kit. Kit contents and qualities vary,
and if you apply the dollars-per-watt cost calculations most pro installers
use, kits aren’t the best value. But it’s a very user-friendly way to jump
into solar. If you have a garage or shed on the far reaches of your property
and you’d like to convert it to useful work space where you can store and
charge batteries, watch TV or play music, or just put in some overhead
lighting for hobby work, a kit like the one shown here may be just the
answer you’re looking for.

The kit used in this project is a 45-watt, 3-panel PV kit purchased

from a large discounter. In addition to the three 15-watt PV panels, it
includes two 12-volt lights, battery hookups, a combination
regulator/charge controller/safety fuse, and an adapter plug for
different DC appliances. To complete the installation, the only
missing elements are a roof boot to seal the roof penetration for the
panel wires (if you come through the roof) and electrical conduit for
the wire leads from the panels. You’ll need enough conduit to get
from the back of the panels to just above the regulator/charge
controller.
You can set this up as a battery charging station for car, boat and RV
batteries, or you can just install a permanent deep-cycle battery and
use it to power a few lights and DC chargers and appliances. You
can also use the system to power AC appliances and lights, but you’ll
need to add a power inverter with a minimum capacity of 300 watts.
The PV panels slip into angled mounting brackets that can be placed
either on a flat surface or a pitched roof. If you are working on a
pitched roof, follow all safety precautions for working at heights and
wear fall-arresting gear if the pitch is steep.
With the PV panels and a charge controller in place, this solar power
generating station can do a lot more than just charge batteries, even
without an AC inverter. Use it to supply power to a pond or waterfall
pump, add a few DC lights, hook up garden lights, or just keep a few
deep-cycle batteries charged up for emergency power in case the
utility lines go down in a storm. If you live in the frozen north, it’s
also the perfect power source for an ice-fishing shack. Just plug in a
DC-powered light, coffee maker and TV and you’re good to go.
Parts of this solar light kit include: Three 15-watt photovoltaic panels (A); snap-in
mounting stand (B); regulator (C); multi-purpose adapter (D); battery connectors (E); light
wires (F); 12-volt LED lights (G). A 12-volt battery is required but not included with the kit.
How to Make a Solar Light System

Predrill the holes for the mounting brackets after locating the roof rafters,
either by using a stud finder or by lifting up shingle tabs and tapping in
finish nails. You must plan to fasten at least one of the angled mounting
brackets to a rafter. If the other doesn’t fall on a rafter, plan to attach it with
toggle bolt anchors.
Fill the holes for the mounting brackets with roofing cement or silicone
caulk. Fasten the brackets to the roof with neoprene screws (small lag
screws with a rubber washer), or with toggle bolts if not attaching to a
rafter.
Fit the bottom of the first collector panel neatly into the slot in the mounting frame
assembly.
Lock the PV panel down into position by sliding the small bolt heads on the brackets into
the keyhole slots on the back of the panel. (Other kits may use different fasteners.) Cover
the panels with a drop cloth after they’re in position—they’ll start generating electricity as
soon as the sun hits them.
Check the underside of the roof for electrical lines or ductwork. Locate an access hole for
the panel cable into the roof deck, directly behind the panel assembly. Buy a flashing boot
with a rubber boot sized for small electrical conduit (¾" or 1" is best–check online or at
electrical or roofing suppliers if you have difficulty finding one). Place the boot so that the
top edge extends under two shingle tabs, then drill a test hole with a ¼" bit. Leave the bit in
place and double-check the underside of the roof to make sure you come out in the right
spot. If everything looks good, finish the hole with a hole saw or spade bit big enough for
the conduit to fit through.
Cut a piece of conduit long enough to go through the roof and extend
several inches above the boot. The conduit should continue on the
underside of the roof over to the location of the regulator. Push the pipe
through and hold it in place with a pipe strap or block of wood. Slip the roof
boot over the pipe and wiggle it into place under the shingles. Spread
roofing cement or silicone under the sides (but not the bottom) of the metal
flashing, then nail it to the roof. Glue a 90° elbow to the conduit, turning it
downhill, and extend with more conduit (if necessary) to the back of the PV
assembly. Fish the leads from the panels through the conduit to the
regulator; you may need to use an electrician’s fish tape for this job. Finally,
plug the opening in the conduit around the wires with electrician’s putty or
caulk to seal out bugs and drafts.
Install two sturdy shelves inside the building to hold the regulator and
the battery. The shelf should be easily reachable by an adult so the
equipment can be turned on and off and plugged into the adapter
easily. The battery shelf should be at least 18" off the ground.
Connect the wires from the PV panels to the solar terminals on the
back of the regulator/charge controller. Secure the wires to the walls
or roof framing members to keep them clear. CAUTION: The collector
panels should be covered with a drop cloth or opaque material well before
making these connections. Tape or clamp the drop cloth so it doesn’t blow
off.
With the regulator turned off, fasten the battery leads to the back of
the regulator, then clamp them to the battery posts–black to negative
first, then red to positive. Then uncover the PV panels. Double-check
the connections, then turn the regulator/charge controller on. For a
12V battery, the voltage output reader (inset) will show 13 when the
battery is fully charged.
This kit includes two DC lights. To install them (or other DC
appliances), just plug the cord in to the proper port (or adapter) and
turn the power on. Hang the 12-volt light fixtures from the rafters and
then staple the cords to keep them secure and out of the way. Make
sure to leave enough cord that the plug end is easy to insert and
remove from the port. You’ll plug and unplug the lights to turn them on
and off.
Solar-Powered Security Light
A self-contained electrical circuit with dedicated loads—usually 12-volt
light fixtures—is one of the most useful solar amenities you can install. A
standalone system is not tied into your power grid, which greatly reduces
the hazards involved in installing the components yourself. Plus, the fact
that your light fixtures are independent of the main power source means
that even during a power outage you will have functioning emergency
and security lights.

Installing a single solar-powered circuit is relatively simple, but don’t

take the dangers for granted. Your work will require permits and
inspections in most jurisdictions, and you can’t expect to pass if the
work is not done to the exact specifications required.
Solar panels can be small and designed to accomplish a specific
task, or they can be large enough to provide power or
supplementary power to an entire house. Before you make the leap
into a large system, it’s a good idea to familiarize yourself with the
mechanics of solar power. The small system demonstrated in this
project is relatively simple, and is a great first step into the world of
solar. The fact that the collector, battery, and lights are a standalone
system makes this a very easy project to complete. By contrast,
installing panels that provide direct supplementary power through
your main electrical service panel is a difficult wiring job that should
be done by professional electricians only.
This 60-watt solar panel is mounted on a garage roof and powers a self-contained home
security lighting system. Not only does this save energy costs, it keeps the security lights
working even during power outages.
TOOLS & MATERIALS
Tape measure
Drill/driver with bits
Caulk gun
Wiring tools
Metal-cutting saw
Socket wrench
Photovoltaic panel (50 to 80 watts)
Charge controller
Catastrophe fuse
Battery sized for 3-day autonomy
Battery case
Battery cables
12-volt LED lights including motion-sensor light
Additional 12-volt light fixtures as desired
20 ft. Unistrut 1⅞"-thick U-channel (see Resources)
45° Unistrut connectors
90° Unistrut angle brackets
Unistrut hold-down clamps
⅜" spring nuts
⅜"-dia. × 1"-long hex-head bolts with washers
Green ground screws
DC-rated disconnect or double throw snap switch
6" length of ½"-dia. liquid-tight flexible metallic conduit
½" liquid-tight connectors
Lay-in grounding lugs
Insulated terminal bars to accept one 2-gauge wire and four 12-gauge wires
Cord cap connectors for ½"-dia. cable
½" ground rod and clamp
Copper wire (6- and 12-gauge)
Square boxes with covers
½" flexible metallic conduit or Greenfield
½" Greenfield connectors
11/16" junction boxes with covers

PVC 6 × 6" junction box with cover

14/2 UF wire
¼ × 20 nuts and bolts with lock washers
Roof flashing boot
Roof cement
Silicone caulk
Eye protection
Schematic Diagram for an Off-the-Grid Solar Lighting
System
Mounting PV Panels

The mounting stand for the PV panel is constructed from metal U-channel and pre-bent
fasteners (a product called Unistrut is seen here. See Resources). Position the solar panel
where it will receive the greatest amount of sunlight for the longest period of time each
day—typically the south-facing side of a roof or wall. For a circuit with a battery reserve
that powers two to four 12-volt lights, a collection panel rated between 40 and 80 watts of
output should suffice. These panels can range from $200 to $600 in price, depending on
the output and the overall quality.
The stand components are held together with bolts and spring-
loaded fasteners. The 45° and 90° connectors are manufactured
specifically for use with this Unistrut system.
Connections for the feed wires that carry current from the collector
are made inside an electrical box mounted on the back of the
collector panel.
An EPDM rubber boot seals off the opening where the PVC conduit
carrying the feed wires penetrates the roof.
How to Wire a DC Lighting Circuit

Mount a junction box inside the building where the conduit and wiring enter
from the power source. Secure the box to the conduit with appropriate
connectors. Run two 14 gauge wires through the conduit and connect
them to the positive and negative terminals on the panel.
Plan the system layout. Determine the placement of the battery and
then decide where you will position the charge controller and DC
disconnect. The battery should be placed at least 18" off the ground in
a well-ventilated area where it won’t be agitated by everyday activity.
Mark locations directly on the wall.
Attach a junction box for enclosing the DC disconnect, which is a
heavy-duty switch, to a wall stud near the battery and charge
controller location. Use a metal single-gang box with mounting
flanges.
Run flexible metal conduit from the entry point at the power source to
the junction box for the DC disconnect box. Use hangers rated for
flexible conduit.
Attach a double-gang metal junction box to the building’s frame
beneath the DC disconnect box to enclose the charge controller.
Attach the DC disconnect switch to the wire leads from the power
source.
Install the charge controller inside the double-gang box. Run flexible
conduit with connectors and conductors from the disconnect box and
to the charge controller box.
Mount a PVC junction box for the battery controller about 2 ft. above
the battery location and install two insulated terminal bars within the
box.
Build a support shelf for the battery using 2 × 4s. The shelf should be
at least 18" above ground. Set the battery on the shelf in a sturdy
plastic case.
Set up grounding protection. Pound an 8-ft.-long, ½"-dia. ground rod
into the ground outside the building, about 1 ft. from the wall on the
opposite side of the charge controller. Leave about 2" of the rod
sticking out of the ground. Attach a ground rod clamp to the top of the
rod. Drill a 5/16" hole through the garage wall (underneath a shake or
siding piece) and run the #6-gauge THWN wire to the ground rod. This
ground will facilitate lightning protection.
Wire the DC disconnect. Attach the two #14-gauge wires to the two
terminals labeled “line” on the top of the DC disconnect switch.
Run wiring to the loads (exterior DC lighting fixtures in this case) from
the charge controller. DC light fixtures (12-volt) with LED bulbs can be
purchased at marine and RV stores if you can’t find them in your home
center or electrical supply store.
OPTION: Attach a motion sensor. Some charge controllers come
equipped with a motion sensor to maximize the efficiency of your
lighting system—these are especially effective when used with
security lighting. The motion sensor is typically mounted to a bell box
outside and wired directly to the charge controller with an 18-gauge ×
3-conductor insulated cable. A system like this can support up to three
motion sensors. Follow the manufacturer’s directions for installing
and wiring the motion sensor.
Wire the charge controller. Route two more #14-gauge wires from the
bottom of the DC disconnect terminals into the 4 × 11/16 junction box
and connect to the “Solar Panel In” terminals on the charge controller.
The black wire should connect to the negative terminal in the PVC box
and the red to the positive lead on the charge controller. Finish wiring
of the charge controller according to the line diagram provided with
the type of controller purchased. Generally the load wires connect to
the orange lead and the red wire gets tied to the battery through a
fuse.
Install the battery. Here, a deep-cycle 12-volt marine battery is used.
First, cut and strip each of the two battery cables at one end and
install into the battery control junction box through cord cap
connectors. Terminate these wires on two separate, firmly mounted
insulated terminal blocks.
Install the catastrophe fuse onto the positive terminal using nuts and
bolts provided with the battery cables. Connect the battery cables to
the battery while paying close attention to the polarity (red to positive
and black to negative). Make sure all connections have been made and
double checked.
Cover all junction boxes, then remove the bag from the panel and turn
the DC disconnect switch on to complete the circuit. Test the lights
and adjust the time to desired setting.
Solar Heat
Unlike photovoltaic panels, solar collectors are everywhere around
us. In fact, we’re living in one. The Earth itself is one giant collector,
absorbing light from the sun and keeping just enough of it under an
insulating layer of atmosphere for life to exist.
Solar collectors work in a similar way, and although the scientific
explanation for what they do is complicated, actually making one is
not that difficult. There are basically two ways to collect solar heat
and put it to a useful purpose, and we’ll show projects that illustrate
each type. The first is probably the simplest and most familiar,
especially if you’ve ever owned a car with a black interior and left it
parked in the sun with the windows rolled up. Dark colors absorb
heat, and if they’re in a space covered with glass much of the heat
will be trapped, then come blasting out when you open the door.
That’s the principle behind the solar hot air collector on this page.
Solar hot water collectors take the idea a step further, by
transferring that stored heat to water flowing through heat-
absorbing pipes (see here), after which it can be used for hot water
or heat throughout the house, or even stored for later use (here).
The second method is a little different. Instead of just absorbing
heat in a black box, solar energy is first concentrated and focused by
a reflective surface. This can be a curved, highly polished array of
mirrors capable of generating heat measuring in the thousands of
degrees, or it can be reflective foil glued to the slanting sides of a
box, bouncing enough solar heat towards a black pot to cook a
chicken dinner (here).
Either way, solar heat collectors have one big advantage over PV
panels—a faster return on your investment, especially if you make
your own.
IN THIS CHAPTER
Collecting the Heat of the Sun
Solar Oven
Solar Water Heater
Solar Hot Air Collector—Window Mount
Hot Air Collector—Roof Mount
Solar Still

A large array of solar hot water collectors makes a significant dent in the hot water bill at
this mountainside resort.
Collecting the Heat of the Sun
If you ever burned a dry leaf with a magnifying glass when you were a
kid, you’ve harnessed the power of the sun with a solar collector. Solar
collectors are fascinating, but unlike PV panels are really pretty easy to
understand—a very powerful but very accessible technology.

Solar collectors convert sunlight into heat, even in the dead of

winter, then use that heat to do useful work: cook food, heat water
or air, or even generate electricity by creating steam to power a
turbine. You don't need to understand physics to make a good solar
collector; you just need to have an understanding of how to collect
and use heat.
This gallery of solar heat collectors illustrates a few of the
possibilities—all working, proven technologies. Many others are
available, and most will work well whether you live near the equator
or the North Pole, or anywhere else the sun shines.
The evacuated-tube hot water collectors mounted to the side of this house in the desert
collect abundant hot water for bathing and heat. Evacuated tubes are well-enough
insulated that they can survive an occasional cold snap.
In this thermosyphon hot water collector, heated water rises into the storage tank at the
top and then flows into the house as needed. This simple system is widely used in warmer
parts of the world where freezing temperatures are not a problem.
The ability of a magnifying glass to concentrate solar heat enough to start a fire has been
known since at least 700 BCE. Solar collectors that concentrate sunlight use the same
basic principle.
This solar collector uses parabolic reflectors to heat oil passing through a pipe to 750°F.
This hot fluid is then used to boil water and generate steam, which powers turbines that
create electricity. This power plant has been in operation since 1985.
Uses for Solar Heat

Instead of using expensive fossil fuels to heat the water in this pool, the homeowners
installed solar hot water collectors to utilize the free heat of the sun.
Solar panels and collectors can be fastened to corrugated metal roofs
without expensive standoff systems, since rainwater just drains
underneath.
Cool water enters these flat-plate hot water collectors at the bottom, then
gradually rises to the top as it is heated. A pump then moves it to a storage
tank inside the house.
It looks like some strange metal bird, but it’s actually a solar cooker boiling water for tea.
The panel is shaped so that all the reflected sunlight is focused on the base of the pot.
Under the right conditions—sunny climate, high energy prices, political
support—solar hot water collectors can catch on fast. Notice all the black
rectangular collectors on the roofs in this city on the Mediterranean coast
of Turkey.
Arrays of hot water collectors are ganged together at the top and bottom. Cool water flows
in at the lower right at one end of the array, and heated water flows out at the upper left.
This system is controlled by a pump inside the house.
Hot water collectors are often mounted almost vertically to capture more of the winter sun
and less of the summer. Collectors can actually get too hot if the water sits for a long
period. The PV panels on the roof, however, need all the sun they can get.
Drainback solar hot water systems are safe for year-round use, even in cold climates.
Water is pumped to the collectors only when the temperature in the collector is higher than
the temperature in the storage tank, so there’s no danger of freezing pipes.
For peak performance, clean dirt and leaves off solar panels and solar collectors. If your
collectors are up on a sloped roof, spraying with a hose from the ground will do the job.
Solar Oven
Solar ovens are simple devices that capture heat from the sun with a
reflective surface that’s angled or curved towards a cooking pot. Because
they can be easily made from cheap materials like scrap cardboard and
tinfoil, they are widely used in areas of the world where trees and fossil
fuel are scarce or expensive. Once made, they can be used to cook food and
boil water in a reasonable amount of time for absolutely no cost.

There are dozens of possible designs (see Resources); some angle

the rays down into a small center area, while others focus the rays
upward toward the underside of a pot, like a reversed magnifying
glass. You can also buy portable solar ovens assembled from
polished metal online—they’re great equipment for camping. But if
you’re serious about integrating free fuel from the sun into your
cooking, the plan on these pages features a solar oven that works
beautifully and is also built to last. Plus, you can build it for a
fraction of the cost of a purchased solar cooker.

Depending on variables like location, ambient air temperature and

the angle of the sun, a solar oven can reach temperatures above
boiling (212°F). In ideal conditions, some types can reach 300°F or
more. This temperature range is high enough that you can safely
cook any food, including meat. Cooking times are longer, but
because the temperature is lower there’s little danger of
overcooking, and the food is delicious.
Solar Oven Types

Solar cookers can be made in a wide variety of designs. The main criteria is that they have
a reflective side or sides that focus sunlight toward a heat-absorbing (usually black) pot or
base.
Made from cardboard and aluminum foil, this solar cooker is still capable of heating food
almost to boiling. Variations of this basic design are widely used in poor areas of the world
that have abundant sunlight but limited fuel; their use helps preserve dwindling forests.
You don’t need charcoal for an outdoor grill–just open up your solar cooker and turn on the
sunlight.
In a dry, arid region of Tibet with little available firewood, a homeowner uses this ingenious
solar cooker to heat water and cook food.
Take this solar cooker on picnics and camping trips. The angled blades focus
light on the pot in the center, then fold up into a compact bundle when you’re
done.
 SOLAR OVEN

There are numerous ways to make a solar cooker—one website

devoted to the subject has dozens of photos of different types sent
in by people from all around the world—and all of them seem to
work reasonably well. We settled on this model mostly because
we’re carpenters and we like working with wood more than metal.
Feel free to modify it as you wish.
The cooker is big enough to hold two medium-size pots. All the
pieces are cut from one eight-foot-long 2 × 12 and a sheet of ¾"
plywood. The cooker would work just as well with ¼" plywood, but
we used ¾" because it made it simpler to screw the corners and
edges together. The base is made from 1½"-thick lumber for ease of
construction and for the insulation value of the thicker wood, but
thinner material would also work.
The foil we used was a type recommended for durability and
resistance to UV degradation by an independent research institute.
Unfortunately, it was expensive, and if you’re just starting out you
may want to do a trial run with heavy-duty aluminum foil. Although
foil looks a little dull, it actually reflects solar rays almost as well as
specially polished mirrors.
TOOLS & MATERIALS
Straightedge
Circular saw
Jigsaw or plunge router
Tape measure
Drill/driver with bits
Speed square
Stapler
Eye and ear protection
#8 countersink bit
¾" × 4 × 8-ft. BC or better plywood
2 × 12 × 8-ft. SPF SolaRefle× foil (see Resources) or heavy-duty aluminum foil
1⅝ and 2½" deck screws
Clear silicone caulk
Contact cement, or white glue and brush, optional
Mid-size black metal pot with glass top
Wire rack
¼ × 17¼ × 17¼" tempered glass
No-bore glass lid pulls (Rockler item no. 29132)
¼ × 2" hanger bolts with large fender washers and wingnuts

CUTTING LIST
KEY / PART / NUMBER DIMENSION MATERIAL
A Base (2) 1½ × 11¼ × 19" SPF
B Base (2) 1½ × 11¼ × 16" SPF
C Bottom (1) ¾ × 19 × 19" Plywood
D Adjustable leg (1) ¾ × 10 × 17" Plywood
E Back (1) ¾ × 20 × 33¾" Plywood
F Front (1) ¾ × 10 × 25¼" Plywood
G Sides (2) ¾ × 20 × 31¼" Plywood
H Cover (1) ¼ × 17¼ × 17¼" Tempered glass
Sun rays reflect off the foil sides and are concentrated at the base of the cooker, where
they are absorbed by the black pot. The glass cover (or clear oven cooking bag) helps hold
heat and moisture in the pot. The cooker should face the sun. Raise or lower the box
depending on the time of year so that you catch the sun straight on. Shim the wire rack as
needed to keep the pot level.
How to Build a Solar Oven

Cut the four 2 × 12 base pieces to length according to the cutting list. Arrange the base
parts on a flat work surface and clamp them together in the correct orientation. Check with
a carpenter’s square and adjust the parts as needed. Then drill pilot holes and fasten the
pieces together with 2½" deck screws.
Lay a 4 × 8-ft. sheet of plywood on the work surface with the better side facing up. Select a
good grade of ¾" plywood (we used BC) or you’re likely to have issues with parts warping,
and you’ll find it difficult to drive screws into the edge grain of the plywood. Mark and cut
the 19 × 19" bottom piece first. Rest the full sheet of plywood on a couple of old 2 × 4s—
you can cut through them as you make your cuts without any need to move them out of
the way.
COMPOUND MITER CORNER CUTS

The sides of this solar cooker box are cut with the same basic technique used to cut
crown molding. Instead of angling the crown against the miter saw fence in the same
position it will be against the ceiling—a simple 45° cut that is easy to visualize—you
have to make the compound cuts with the wood lying flat, which makes it mind-
bendingly difficult to visualize the cut angles. For the dimensions of this cooker, a 40°
bevel cut along the 22½° line will form a square corner. If you change the 22½° angle,
the saw cut will also change.

If you remember your geometry you can work all this out on paper, but bevel guides
on circular saws are not very precise, and 40° on one saw might be more like 39° on a
different brand; test cuts are the best way to get the angle right. Make the first cuts a
little long and then try them out.

The easiest way to avoid a miscut is to lay all the pieces out with the bases lined up
and the good side of the plywood up. Mark the 22½° lines for the sides, then cut the
40° angles on one edge of all four pieces. Next, flip the piece around and cut the 40°
angle on the other side. Remember, the 40° cut should angle outwards from the good
side of the plywood, and the pieces should all be mirror images.
To create the panels that form the reflector you'll need to make beveled cuts on the bottom
and sides so the panels fit together squarely. With the best side of the plywood facing up,
mark two 20" x 76" long pieces, measuring from the two factory edges so the waste will be
in the middle. Set your circular saw base to 22½°, then cut along the line you drew at 20"
(20" is the long side of the bevel). Cut the other piece starting from the opposite end of the
plywood. You should end up with two mirror image pieces.
Re-set your saw base so it's flat, then cut each 20"-wide panel in half so you have four 20 x
38" panels, each with one beveled 38" edge. With the beveled edge facing up and closest
to you, draw a centerline at 18" on each panel, then make marks on the beveled edges at 8"
on both sides of the centerline. Position a speed square so it pivots at the 8" mark, then
rotate the speed square away from the centerline until the 22½° mark on the speed square
meets the top of the beveled edge. Draw a line along the speed square as shown, then use
a straightedge to extend the line to the other edge (the factory edge) of the plywood.
Repeat at the other 8" mark, flipping the speed square and rotating it away from the
centerline so the lines create a flat-topped triangle. Set the base of your circular saw at
40°, then cut along the angled lines (although it seems incorrect, 40° is the angle required
to form a square corner when the pieces are assembled). Mark and cut the remaining three
panels in the same fashion.
Finish cutting the reflector parts to final size and shape. TIP: Clamping or holding smaller
parts for cutting can be tricky. Here is a useful trick: After you’ve laid out your cutting lines,
set the workpiece onto a pair of old 2 × 4s. Tack the workpieces to the 2 × 4s with finish
nails, ideally driven into the waste area of the panels. Keep the nails at least a couple of
inches from any cutting line. Set your saw so the cutting depth is about ¼" more than the
thickness of the workpiece and then make your cuts.
Assemble the reflector. Brace two of the reflector sides against a square piece of scrap
plywood clamped to the work surface, then join the edges with screws driven into
countersunk pilot holes. Repeat for the other two pieces, then join the two halves together
with four screws at each corner, completing the reflector. The bottom edges should be
aligned. The top edges won't match perfectly, so sand them smooth.
Make the adjustable leg, which contains parallel slots so the leg can
move up and down over a pair of hanger bolts, raising and lowering the
angle of the cooker so you can take full advantage of the direction of
the sun's rays. Outline the slots in the adjustable leg of the oven so
they are ⅜" wide (or slightly wider than your hanger bolt shafts).
Locate a slot 2" from each edge of the adjustable leg. The slots should
stop and start 2" from the top and bottom edges. Cut the slots with a
jigsaw or a plunge router.
Screw the base and the plywood bottom together. Set the adjustable
leg against one side of the base, then drill guide holes and install the
hanger bolts so they will align with the slots. The centers of the bolts
should be at the same height: roughly 2½" up from the bottom of the
box. Use large fender washers and wingnuts to lock the adjustable leg
in position.
Fasten the reflector to the base with countersunk 2½" screws. Angle
the drill bit slightly as you drill to avoid breaking the plywood edge.
Use two screws per side.
Cut pieces of reflective sheeting to fit the sides of the reflector as well
as the base. You can use heavy-duty aluminum foil, but for a sturdier
option try solar foil (see Resources). The product seen here is
essentially polyethylene tarp material with a reflective aluminum
surface. Make sure to cut the pieces large enough so they overlap the
edges and can be easily attached.
Glue the reflective sheeting inside the base and reflector, overlapping
the corners so all bare wood is covered. Use contact cement or
silicone caulk to adhere solar foil, and staple the edges to reinforce the
glue; use diluted white glue with a paint brush instead of contact
cement if you’re using aluminum foil. Pull or smooth out the reflective
material as much as possible; the smoother the surface is, the better it
will reflect light.
Take measurements to double-check the glass lid size. Ideally, the lid will fit
in so it comes to rest about 1" above the top opening of the box. As shown
here, a ¼ × 17 × 17" piece of tempered glass fits just right. Be sure to order
glass with polished edges. You can also just use a clear plastic oven bag
instead of the glass. Either will trap heat and speed up the cooking.
Caulk the joint between the angled top and the base with clear, 100%
silicone caulk. Set a wire rack inside the oven to keep the cooking pot
slightly elevated and allow airflow beneath it.
COOKING WITH A SOLAR COOKER

Anything that can be cooked in a slow cooker, including meat, can be cooked in a
solar cooker (as long as the sun is out!). You can also make bread and other baked
goods, rice, fish, potatoes, and dozens of other dishes. You’ll need to experiment a
little with a cooking thermometer, because cooking times will vary depending on the
time of year and where you live; most foods will need 2 to 4 hours. Other points to
keep in mind when cooking in a solar oven:
Be sure to adjust the back leg so there are no shadows in the cooker, and move
the cooker every hour or so to face the sun directly.
Since the cooking temperature is fairly low and the food is in a closed pot, it won’t
overcook or dry out if you leave it in too long.
You can use a candy thermometer or oven thermometer to find out how hot the
oven is. This will help you determine cooking time.
Avoid opening the lid unless absolutely necessary—it’s estimated that every time
you open the lid you add 15 minutes to the cooking time.
Wipe down the interior of the oven after every usage. Keeping the glass lid clean
allows as much sunlight in as possible.
You cannot cook in the oven without a dark pot with a lid. The dark metal of the
pot is warmed by the sunlight and transfers its heat to the food.
See the Resources section for links to sites with solar cooking recipes.
Do not allow children to use the solar oven unless they are under direct adult
supervision.

HANDLING FOIL

If you use rugged solar foil to create the reflective surface, you can glue it to the 2 x
12s and the plywood base prior to assembly. If you are using heavy-duty aluminum
foil, which tears easily, you’ll get better results if you glue it to the wood surfaces
after the box is assembled.

GETTING A HANDLE ON GLASS

Since it is virtually impossible to lift the glass lid from above, you’ll need to install
handles or pulls designed to attach to glass (available from woodworking hardware
suppliers) to lift and replace the glass cover. The simplest of these (see Resources)
require no drilling. You squeeze a bead of clear, 100% silicone into the U-channel of
the lid handle, then slide the handle over the edge of the glass.
Solar Water Heater
The basic principle of a solar water heater is simple. Water or an
antifreeze solution flows through pipes in a large, flat, enclosed box
known as a flat plate collector, or through a series of vacuum tubes in an
array known as an evacuated-tube collector. As the liquid moves through
the system, solar heat is transferred to it. In a thermosyphon system, the
solar-heated water flows into a storage tank and is used directly. In a
drainback system, the solar-heated liquid—which can be water or
antifreeze solution—flows into a heat exchanger inside a water-storage
tank, where it heats potable water; the solar-heated liquid is not used
directly.

Storing the hot water in a separate tank is necessary because it

takes longer for the water to heat up, and because a large supply is
needed to last through the night and early morning. Solar water
heaters are usually paired with a conventional gas or electric water
heater—either a tank or a tankless, point-of-use type—to ensure
uninterrupted hot water during cloudy periods or times of heavy use,
but the conventional heater won’t turn on unless it’s needed, which
saves considerable money. And solar hot water heaters work
anytime the sun is out, even in winter.
A number of different manufactured hot water collectors are
available, but you can build your own for a fraction of the cost using
wood, copper pipe and polycarbonate glazing—all materials available
at home centers. The concept is simple, and can be modified to fit
your house and needs. There are also many alternative designs
available on the internet (see Resources).
Hot water collectors can serve a number of different purposes. If
you have enough sun, they can provide all the hot water for your
household, but even on cloudy days the water will warm up enough
to reduce the amount of energy you need. Using them with tankless
heaters saves even more money, eliminating the need to keep a
conventional water tank full of expensively heated water all day and
night. Hot water collectors can also be used to provide heat for pools
and hot tubs, and to heat water for use in a heating system.

This attractive solar heater array provides hot water for two families.
Solar Water Heater Types

The supports for this solar hot water collector are angled at 45°—a reasonable
compromise between the ideal summer and winter angles.

Thermosyphon hot water heaters work without pumps or controls. Heated water flows into
the upper part of the storage tank, which draws cooler water from the bottom of the
storage tank into the bottom inlet of the storage collector. The water is part of the house
system, so whenever the hot water faucet is turned on, hot water flows out of the storage
tank and fresh cold water flows in.
This type of thermosyphon system uses evacuated-tube hot water collectors and an
attached storage tank at the top to provide hot water. It works well in both a tropical
climate (top photo) and a cool northern climate.
 COPPER TUBING HEATER PANEL

This flat plate collector can be used with several different types of
solar hot water systems. In warm climates it can work with a
thermosyphon storage tank (see here); in cooler climates where
freezing is a problem it can be used as a rooftop or wall collector
with a drainback system (see here), or other type of pump-
controlled system. It’s also possible to use this collector with a
system containing antifreeze, but water heaters with antifreeze
require special plumbing and safety features to avoid contaminating
the water supply, and should be discussed with a plumbing inspector
or left to an expert.
The collector is constructed of wood with a layer of insulation to help
retain heat. The panel covering it is made from polycarbonate, a
type of clear acrylic that resists the UV damage that clouds and
cracks regular acrylic. Cool water comes in through a ¾" pipe at the
bottom and is gradually heated as it rises through a manifold of ½"
copper pipes. Heat is collected and transferred to the pipes by thin
aluminum panels lining the box and shaped over the copper. As the
water warms in the pipes, it rises to the top and flows into the upper
part of the storage tank as cool water from the bottom of the
storage tank flows in to replace it. This water movement continues
until the water in the storage tank is hotter than the water in the
collector, at which point the thermosyphon action stops or the
thermostatically-controlled pump switches off.
The collector can be mounted on the ground (as we did—see here),
the roof, or the side of the building, at an angle based on the
latitude (see here). However, these collectors can get quite hot
during the summer months, and they are often placed at a steeper
angle so that they face the low winter sun more directly, and deflect
some of the intense heat from the high summer sun.
Use polyisocyanurate rigid insulation (usually called “polyiso”) for the
insulation in a solar collector as it has the highest R-value and is also
the most heat-resistant type of rigid insulation. Polyiso has a variety
of trade names; just look for the insulation with the highest R-value.
To simplify construction, the size of this collector is based on a sheet
of plywood, but it can be built a different size or orientation or
ganged together with other collectors to make a larger array.
Deciding how big a collector you need is mostly trial and error based
on your usage and climate, but the square footage of a sheet of
plywood is a good starting point for an average household. If it’s not
enough, you can always add another one.

If you can solder pipe and cut wood, you can build a collector like this,
and start saving money on water heating costs right away.
TOOLS & MATERIALS
Level
Circular saw
Miter saw
Tape measure
Drill/driver with bits
Stapler
Razor knife
Soldering torch
Wire brush for copper pipe
Adjustable wrenches
Hammer
½" plywood
½" × 4' × 8' plywood
¾" rigid Polyisocyanurate insulation
¼" plywood 2 × 4 × 8' for sides, bottom; 2 × 6 × 51" for top
Copper tubing cutter
Sledgehammer
⅝" steel rod
High-temperature black paint
PEX crimping tool
¾" × ¾" inside nailers, nailers for glazing, caps for top and bottom
¾" × 1½" top nailer for glazing
½" × 49½" EMT cross supports for glazing
Neoprene rubber screws
1¼", 1⅝", 2½" deck screws
¾" machine screws
½" machine screws
6d galv. casing nails
Aluminum soffit panels
Aluminum coil stock
Paintable acrylic caulk
Clear silicone caulk
Polycarbonate glazing (¼" × 2 × 8' panels)
Closure strips (sold with glazing)
Stainless-steel staples
Emery cloth
¾ × ½" Ts
¾ × ¾" T
¾ × ½" elbows
¾" elbow
¾" male threaded coupling
¾" cap
¾" hose bibb
½ × 85½" Type L copper
¾ copper tubing cut to fit (pieces between Ts)
(2) 10" long × ¾" (inlet and outlet)
(2) ¾ × ¾ PEX adapters
¾" PEX tubing (to inside house)
¾” pipe wrap insulation
Lead-free solder
Paste flux
Teflon tape
Copper pipe straps
EMT conduits
½ and ¾" type L copper tubing
Copper fittings
Hose bibb
PEX tubing
PEX to copper transitions
Copper soldering supplies
¾" pipe wrap insulation
CUTTING LIST
KEY / PART / NUMBER DIMENSION MATERIAL
A Top (1) 1½" × 5½" × 48" PT or SPF
B Sides (2) 1½" × 3½" × 95" SPF
C Bottom (1) 1½" × 3½" × 45" SPF
D Underside (1) ¼" × 45" × 93½" Plywood
E Nailers (2) ¾" × ¾" × 93½" Pine
F Nailers (2) ¾" × ¾" × 43½" Pine
G Collector panel (1) ½" × 45" × 93½" Plywood
H Insulation (1) ¾" × 43½" × 92" Polyiso
I Nailers (3) ¾ × ¾ × 95" Pine
J Upper nailer (1) ¾" × 1½" × 45" Pine
K Caps (2) ¾ × ¾" × 48" Cedar or PT
L Glazing supports ½" (2) ½" × 46½" EMT
M Glazing (2) ¼" × 2' × 8' Polycarbonate
N Heat collectors (24) 28" × 6¾" Aluminum soffit panels
O Heat collectors (8) 4" × 84" Aluminum coil stock
P Long tube (8) ½ × 85½" Type L copper
Q Tee (14) ½ to ¾" Copper fitting
R Elbow (2) ½ to ¾" Copper fitting
S Connector (14) ¾" × cut to fit Type L copper
T In/Out Pipe (8) ¾" × cut to fit Type L copper
How to Make a Copper Tubing Heater Panel

The frame that houses this solar water heater is constructed from 2 × 4 and 2 × 6
dimensional lumber. Cut the pieces of the frame to length, then join them with 2½" deck
screws driven into pilot holes.
Cut the ¼" plywood to size, then set it inside the frame as a spacer for the ¾ × ¾" nailers. If
you can’t locate ¾ × ¾" trim stock for the nailers at your building center, rip-cut ¾"-thick
strips from a piece of 1× stock (a tablesaw is best for this, but you can use a circular saw
and straightedge cutting guide, too). Screw the nailers to the inner perimeter of the frame
with 1⅝" deck screws. Check to make sure the plywood is flush in back as you fasten the
nailers.
Solar Hot Water Collector
Flip the frame over and set the ¼" plywood back into the frame against the nailers. Screw
the plywood in place with ¾" machine screws driven through the back panel into the
nailers.

Cut panels of ¾"-thick closed-cell, foil-faced insulation and fit them inside the frame
between the ¾" nailers, flush with the tops of the nailers. Cut a panel of ½" plywood to fit
inside the frame over the insulation and the nailers and attach the plywood to the nailers,
driving a 1¼" screw every 10 to 12" around the perimeter. Caulk the gap between the ½"
plywood and the frame with clear, 100% silicone caulk.
The “guts” of this solar water heater is an array of copper tubing through which the water
runs to absorb heat while it resides inside the box. The matrix of copper tubes is
assembled using ¾-to-½ reducing Ts connected by short lengths of ¾" tubing on the ends
and long lengths of ½ tubing filling out the space from end-to-end. Making this copper
“manifold” requires that you be able to solder copper plumbing pipe. Cut all the copper
pieces to length, then clean, flux and assemble them into the grid as seen in the Diagram
on this page. Make the inlet and outlet pipes a few inches longer than you need—they’ll be
cut shorter after pressure-testing the completed manifold.
Solder all the pieces together. Protect the floor from drips of solder and flux with a
dropcloth. Wait at least 5 minutes to touch the copper after soldering it—it will be very hot.
Before placing the manifold in the collector box, test the manifold for
leaks. Solder a cap to the outlet at the top, then solder a ¾ × ½"
reducer/male coupling to the inlet at the bottom. Wrap the threads
with teflon tape, then attach the hose transition (available at home
centers). Attach a hose and turn the water on. Leave it on for a few
minutes; if there’s a leak in one of the joints, you’ll hear air and then
water hissing out. If there are no leaks, drain the water and cut the cap
and the reducer coupling off, then shorten both pipes to 5" measured
from the last T.
Mark the location of the cold-water inlet and the warm-water outlet on the sides of the box
by setting the copper grid into the box and extending the inlet and outlet port locations
onto the outside of the frame. Drill the holes with a 1"-diameter bit.

Mark the manifold locations on the plywood, then cut 4"-wide pieces of aluminum flashing
and staple them so they are centered under each length of copper. These will help transfer
the heat to the copper pipes. Use stainless-steel staples.
There are a few suppliers for preformed aluminum fins (see Resources), but
you can easily make your own using aluminum soffit panels, a plywood jig
and a sledgehammer. Build a jig to make your aluminum fins using two
pieces of ⅝"-thick plywood or hardwood screwed to a plywood base. Space
the gap between the two plywood pieces by using the ⅝" steel rod and two
scraps of aluminum soffit as a guide. Buy solid (not vented) soffit panels
with V-grooves and then cut the panels using a razor knife and straight
edge into 6¾"-wide strips with the V-groove in the center. The V-grooves are
then formed into round channels that fit tightly over the copper pipe. Form
them by pounding a ⅝"-dia. steel rod down into them with a sledgehammer
(or similar heavy weight).
Fasten the manifold in place with copper pipe straps, equidistant from the
edges. Spread a bead of silicone caulk on both sides of the copper pipe to
fill the void along the bottom edge, then push the aluminum fin sections
over the pipe and staple or screw them down as close as possible to the
pipe. (The silicone helps to transfer heat from the fin to the copper.) Butt
the fins against each other.
Create cross-bar supports for the polycarbonate glazing by installing two
lengths of ½" EMT conduit across the box. Drill ¾" holes halfway through
the 2 × 4 sides, centering the drill bit ⅜" down and drilling from the inside.
Square the holes with a chisel, then place the conduit in the holes.
Lay the glazing on top of the box and mark the spots for ¾" nailers at
the sides and the center overlap. Fasten the strips with 6d galv. casing
nails.
Paint the entire inside of the collector with black, high-temperature
paint.
Place closure strips at the top and bottom and lay the corrugated glazing in place. Caulk
the overlap between the two panels with a thin bead of clear silicone. Predrill the screw
holes on the sides, then enlarge the holes in the glazing with a ¼" bit so that the glazing
can move with temperature changes. Fasten the glazing with neoprene screws every foot
on the sides. In the center, predrill with a smaller bit and use ½" machine screws every two
feet. Squirt a dab of silicone in and around these holes before tightening the screw to seal
around the screw.
Cover the ends of the glazing with ¾" wood strips. Predrill and fasten
the strips with 2½" deck screws. Caulk the strip at the top against the
2 × 6 cap using paintable acrylic caulk.
Solder on the last copper fittings and the PEX (crosslinked
polyethylene) adapters. PEX is easier to snake through the house than
rigid copper. It also makes it possible to adjust the collector angle if
you need to, and will flex easily if the collector moves due to soil
movement or accidental bumps. Attach it to the brass PEX adapter
with a brass ring and a special crimping tool. Finally, seal the inlet and
outlet holes with caulk and paint the exterior of the box. Wrap pipe
insulation around the exposed copper and PEX lines, both to retain
heat and to protect the PEX from UV degradation. Complete the
connections inside, then fill the system (see here).
A QUICK GUIDE TO SOLDERING COPPER

There’s quite a bit of cutting and soldering involved in this project, and if you’ve never
worked with copper it can seem intimidating, but as long as you follow the correct
procedure and use the right tools, you’ll be an expert in no time. The most important
thing to remember is to test your work after you’re done, so you can fix any problems
before they cause real damage.

Clean the end of each pipe by sanding with emery cloth. Ends must be free
of dirt and grease to ensure that the solder forms a good seal.
Clean the inside of each fitting by scouring with a wire brush or emery
cloth.

Apply a thin layer of soldering paste (flux) to end of each pipe, using a flux
brush. Soldering paste should cover about 1" of pipe end.
Assemble each joint by inserting the pipe into the fitting so it is tight
against the bottom of the fitting sockets. Twist each fitting slightly to
spread soldering paste.

Prepare the wire solder by unwinding 8" to 10" of wire from spool. Bend the
first 2" of the wire to a 90º angle.
Move the torch flame back and forth and around the pipe and the fitting to
heat the area evenly.

Heat the other side of the copper fitting to ensure that heat is distributed
evenly. Touch solder to pipe. Solder will melt when the pipe is at the right
temperature.
When solder melts, remove the torch and quickly push ½" to ¾" of solder
into each joint. Capillary action fills the joint with liquid solder. A correctly
soldered joint should show a thin bead of solder around the lips of the
fitting.

Allow the joint to cool briefly, then wipe away excess solder with a dry rag.
Caution: Pipes will be hot. If joints leak after water is turned on,
disassemble and resolder.
THERMOSYPHONS

Thermosyphon water heaters are the simplest type of solar water heating system;
they don’t require pumps or controls to move the hot water and can be used to heat
house water directly, without a heat exchanger. However, they do require a storage
tank, both to collect and store heated water and to keep it flowing through the
collector. If house water were run through the heater without an intermediate storage
tank it would either stagnate and get too hot when it wasn’t being used, or flow
through too quickly to get hot—like a hose lying in the sun.

The syphoning action that circulates the water starts when water in the copper pipes
slowly warms up, becomes lighter (hot water weighs less than cold water), and rises
through the collecter and then uphill to the top of the storage tank. As the water rises
it pulls cool water down from the bottom of the storage tank into the collector. This
process continues as long as the water in the storage tank is cooler than the water in
the collector. At night the water in the collector is cooler and heavier so it stays in the
collector.

When the hot water in the house is turned on, hot water from the storage tank flows
into the cold water inlet of the hot water heater, reducing or eliminating the need for
electricity or fuel to heat the water. Cold water from the house supply line then flows
into the storage tank and from there to the collector.

There are two major tradeoffs for this simplicity: The first is that the system has to be
closed off and drained in the winter, unless it’s installed in a part of the country where
freezing temperatures are rare. The second is that the storage tank has to be at least
a foot above the level of the top of the solar collector or the thermosyphon effect
won’t work. Heated water won’t flow downhill and cold water won’t flow uphill unless
you install a thermostatically controlled water pump between the storage tank and
the solar collector.

In warm parts of the world, the storage tank and collector can be set on the roof, as
long as the tank is higher. In northern climates it’s safer to put the tank inside the
house as we did.

Since the thermosyphon collector heats pressurized water from the house water
system, the storage tank has to be both insulated and constructed to hold
pressurized hot water. Storage tanks with all the necessary inlets and outlets are
available through plumbing supply stores and internet suppliers, but the least
expensive way to make one is to adapt a new or slightly used electric tank, which
already has the inlets and outlets along with a pressure relief valve (always
necessary in any pressurized hot water heating system, even a solar-heated one).
However, even if you live in the south, this type of tank must be kept inside the house
because it doesn’t have a weatherproof exterior.
Thermosyphon tanks must be above the level of the collector in order for
the movement of water by thermosyphoning to occur.
Turn off and disconnect any wiring to the heater you'll be
converting to a storage tank. Remove the covers over the heating
elements, cut away the wiring, then turn out both heating elements
with a socket wrench or a channel lock wrench.
Solder several inches of ¾" pipe to 1 × ¾" reducers so you don’t
have to use the torch near the plastic and insulation in the water
heater. After the pipes cool, wrap the fittings with teflon tape, then
thread them into the water heater. Tighten with a wrench, then
connect to the PEX lines coming from the solar collector. Connect
the house cold water supply to the cold inlet at the top, then
connect the hot output to the cold inlet at the main hot water
heater.
Cool water flows from the bottom of the storage tank (1) to the solar collector, is
heated and becomes lighter, then flows to the upper part of the storage tank (2).
Water continues to flow until the water in the storage tank is the same
temperature as, or warmer than, the water in the solar collector. When hot water
is needed, water from the storage tank flows into the cold water inlet of the water
heater (3), then to the fixture (4). Cold water from the main supply then flows into
the storage tank to be heated (5). In winter, water to the solar collector is shut off
(6), and the system is drained (7 and 8). During the winter cold water continues
to flow through the storage tank, where it slowly warms to room temperature,
reducing the amount of energy needed to heat it. The storage tank can be closed
off from the system (9) if necessary, and water can flow directly to the water
heater (10). When the solar collector and tank are being filled, the vent/shutoff at
the top of the hot water line from the collecter can be opened to vent air.
 STORAGE TANK FOR A DRAINBACK SYSTEM

Drainback systems are a tried-and-true option for creating your own

hot water from solar heat without worrying about the water freezing
on cold nights. The same type of solar collector is used as in a
thermosyphon system, but the storage tank can be anywhere inside
the house, and the water flow is controlled by a pump. The water in
the collector is not pressurized or tied into the potable water system.
Heat passes to the pressurized house water system through a heat
exchanger—in this case a coil of PEX tubing inside a large storage
tank. A temperature sensor on the solar collector turns the pump on
when the temperature in the collector is hotter than the temperature
in the storage tank, and also turns it off if the water is getting too
hot. When the pump is off the water drains back into a storage tank
(or separate reservoir in some systems) inside the house. Although
power is needed to run the pump and the setup is a little more
complicated and expensive than the thermosyphon system,
drainback systems are safer and provide more energy savings in
cooler climates because they can be used year-round. They are
basically automatic, and other than occasionally checking for leaks
and general system health, you can safely ignore them most of the
time, just like a conventional water heater. A drainback system can
also be made large enough to help heat pools and hot tubs, or used
as part of a home heating system. An ambitious DIYer with an
understanding of plumbing and electricity can build a drainback
system, but the plumbing is more complicated, so check the links in
the Resources for more technical information before you get started.
For this project, we are going to focus on building the storage tank.
Storage tanks with built-in heat exchangers are available through
plumbing suppliers or the internet, but even a small 40-gallon tank
can cost $1,000 or more. If you have space in a utility area that’s
well-ventilated and has a drain and a solid, flat, waterproof floor (like
a concrete floor in a basement or insulated garage), you can build
your own holding tank from standard building materials. The total
cost is a few hundred dollars and you can do it in a day or two. This
type of storage tank works well with a drainback system, because it
functions as both the reservoir for water from the collectors and as
the heat exchanger. A large storage tank storing water from several
solar collectors can also be used to provide heat for a hot water
heating system. This type of storage tank can’t be used for
pressurized water, though; the pressurized water is contained in the
heat exchanger pipes that run through the storage tank.

You can save money on a solar hot water system by making your own storage tank from
wood, insulation and an EPDM rubber liner.

The minimum size of the storage tank must be large enough for the
heat exchanger piping that you use. For example, one common
design uses a 300-ft. coil of 1" PEX tubing for the heat exchanger,
and a coil that size needs roughly 36 × 36 × 30" of space. The
bigger the heat exchanger coil, the better, since it’s also functioning
as storage for the solar-heated hot water that comes out of the
house faucets. The maximum size and overall shape depends on the
space you have available and on the size of your collectors. For a 4
× 8-ft. solar collector, a 36 × 36 × 30" storage tank is more than
adequate; it takes longer to heat up than a 40-gallon tank, but that
means it will retain the heat longer. Generally, a larger tank is better
—it doesn’t cost much more to build, and you can always add
another collector or reduce the amount of water in the tank.
Use rigid insulation on the inside of the tank, both to cushion the
EPDM rubber liner and to eliminate heat loss through the wood. Use
polyisocyanurate insulation for at least the first layer of insulation
under the EPDM; it has a higher R-value, but it also holds up to high
heat better than other types of rigid insulation.
When the sun warms the solar collector, thermostatic controls turn the pump on and cold
water is pumped from the storage tank up to the collector. Hot water flows out the top of
the collector and down into the storage tank, where the heat is absorbed by water flowing
through the heat exchanger coil. Cool water from the bottom of the storage tank is then
pumped back to the collector. The storage tank is only partly full and not pressurized, so
when the pump turns off, the water in the collector simply drains back into the storage
tank, which protects it from freezing.
TOOLS & MATERIALS
For tank size–3 × 3 × 3' inside
Circular saw
Miter saw
Drill/driver with bits
Caulk gun
Razor knife
4' level
Scissors
Stapler
Clamps
2 × 4" × 8'
½" × 4 × 8' sheets plywood
¾" × 4 × 8' sheet plywood
5/4 × 6 × 8 plastic composite deckboards

1" × 4 × 8' sheets rigid polyisocyanurate insulation

12 × 16 ft. 45-mil EPDM liner
2" × 4 × 8' XPSpolystyrene insulation
1½" × 4 × 8' XPS polystyrene insulation
1⅝" and 2½" deck screws
Construction adhesive compatible with foamboard
Stainless-steel staples
Silicone caulk
300' roll of 1" PEX tubing
¾" PEX (as needed)
¾" PEX elbows
¾" PEX T
¾" shutoff (for PEX)
(2) 1" × ¾" PEX coupling
Thermostatic controller for pump
Inline or submersible pump (for drainback system)
(2) Strips weatherseal
CUTTING LIST
KEY / PART / NUMBER DIMENSION MATERIAL
A Frame (8) 1½" × 3½" × 41" SPF
B Studs (12) 1½" × 3½" × 33½" SPF
C Frame (8) 1½" × 3½" × 48" SPF
D Frame (2) 1½" × 3½" × 47" SPF
E Frame (2) 1½" × 3½" × 44" SPF
F Base, top (2) ¾" × 48" × 48" Plywood
G Sides (2) ½" × 41" × 38" Plywood
H Sides (2) ½" × 40" × 38" Plywood
I Rail (2) 1" × 5½" × 37" Composite decking
J Rail (2) 1" × 5½" × 48" Composite decking
K Insulation (2) 2" × 48" × 48" Polystyrene
L Insulation (2) 1" × 40" × 40" Polyisocyanurate
M Top Insulation (1) 1" × 48" × 48" Polyisocyanurate
N Insulation (2) 1" × 40" × 36" Polyisocyanurate
O Insulation (4) 1" × 38" × 36" Polyisocyanurate
P Insulation (2) 1" × 36" × 36" Polyisocyanurate
Q Outer insulation (4) 1½" × 33½" × 15¼" Polystyrene
R Outer insulation (4) 1½" × 33½" × 16¾" Polystyrene
S Strap (8) 1½" × 12" Galvanized metal strap
STORAGE TANK
The weight of the container with 30" of water inside is roughly 1500 lbs. The capacity is
175 gallons, with 6" of air space.
How to Build the Tank

Select a flat, level area of floor for the storage tank, preferably not
too far away from the plumbing for your solar collector and water
heater. When the tank is full of water it will weigh roughly 1500 lbs,
so it needs to sit on a solid, flat base. If the floor is uneven, level it
with floor leveler or build a wood platform. Although the tank will be
sealed shut with no penetrations through the liner, with this much
water it’s best to be prudent and place the tank in the vicinity of a
floor drain or an area where water won’t cause any damage. And be
sure to keep the tank bolted shut, especially if you have kids—the
water inside can get dangerously hot.
Screw two of the 41" 2 × 4s to three vertical 2 × 4s, then fasten the 41"-
wide piece of ½" plywood to the 2 × 4s with construction adhesive and
1⅝" screws. Repeat for the opposite side. Align the bottom edge of
the plywood with the bottom 2 × 4; the top edge will overhang 1½".
Assemble the remaining sides, but instead of aligning the horizontal
studs with the edge, fasten them 2" in from the edges. Place the third
stud in the center.
Place the ¾" plywood base at the tank location, then assemble the
short sides to the long sides, fastening the overlapping corner 2 × 4s
together with the long deck screws.
Turn the box on its side. Fasten the plywood sides in place on the long
walls, taking care to align corners and edges. Check the box for square
as you assemble it.
Tip the box over, then glue and screw the plywood base to the 2 × 4
frame, aligning all the edges.
Glue the 2" foam base to the plywood base with construction
adhesive, then turn the box right-side up and add the second layer of 2
× 4s to the top, overlapping the corners for strength. Screw the
plywood walls to the final layer of 2 × 4s.
Place the insulation inside the box, using the foamboard adhesive to
attach it. You don’t need much; the water will hold the insulation in
place. Add the second layer, then seal all the corners on the bottom
and sides with silicone caulk.
Cut and set aside a 5 × 12-ft. piece of the EPDM for the top, then fold
the remainder into the tank. Work it into the corners, leaving the rubber
loose at the bottom so it doesn’t stretch with the weight of the water.
Add 6" of water to hold the rubber in place as you fold over the
corners. Drape the excess over the sides.
Fold the corners as neatly as possible and clamp them in place. Don’t
stretch the rubber—leave it sagging at the bottom.
Staple the rubber around the outside edge of the top 2 × 4 ledge.
Level out the rubber ledge between the corner folds with scrap pieces
of rubber.
Decide on a plumbing layout and strap stubs of ¾" PEX to the top
edge for the plumbing connections. Purchase a thermostatic
controller for the pump that will circulate water between the tank and
the solar collector, and run one of the sensor wires into the tank. Cut
the pieces of 5/4 × 6 cap, then set them on a bead of silicone and
screw them in place with 2½" deck or stainless steel screws. NOTE: if
you use copper instead of PEX, complete all soldered connections into and
out of the tank before placing the copper to avoid melting the EPDM liner.
Construct the top from 2 × 4s, ¾" plywood, 1½ or 2" rigid foam, and 1"
polyiso. Cut a 5-ft. square of rubber liner for the top, with 6" cutouts at
each corner. Fold the flaps up the sides and over the top, then staple
the rubber in place.
Place 1½" pieces of insulation on the sides, then install horizontal 2 ×
4s around the center. If desired, you can add additional pieces of
insulation above and below the 2 × 4s, then cover the sides with ¼"
plywood for a finished appearance.
Set the 1" PEX tubing into the tank, then connect the ends to the incoming and outgoing
¾" tubing with PEX 1 × ¾" reducers. Leave enough slack in the PEX lines so that they can
move around as they fill. After making the connections, temporarily hook one end (outside
the tank) to the water hose and plug the other end, then turn the water on and check for
leaks in your connections. Then fill the tubing with water. TIP: Wrap a concrete block in
EPDM and set it in the bottom to keep the PEX tubing above the cooler water at the bottom.

Add two strips of weatherseal on the ledge about 2" apart. Use a soft foam type that
compresses easily and fills voids, like this.
Complete the plumbing connections inside the tank, fill gaps around the pipes on the ledge
with silicone, then clamp the top down tightly to seal the edges. Fasten the top to the base
with galvanized strap and deck screws.

Adding Water

The water used in the collecter tank is pumped to the solar collector,
heated, and then drained back to the tank, dripping into the air
space. It is at atmospheric pressure and is not connected to the
house water system. If possible, use distilled water for the tank to
avoid mineral deposits. If that’s too expensive, house water will
work. If all the openings are well-sealed and there are no leaks, the
tank will stay full. Drain the old water and replace it every year or
two.
Add the water to about six inches from the top after making all the
plumbing connections and filling the PEX tubing. Test the system
before sealing the top to make sure everything works.
Check the water level from time to time, especially in the first
months. You can either just open the top, or else drill a hole for a
½" pipe in the top, seal around it, put a threaded cap on, and then
check the water level with a dipstick.
Installing a Tempering Valve

Solar hot water can get dangerously hot on sunny summer days—up
to 180°F, much hotter than the 120°F water in a typical hot water
heater. To avoid scalding when using solar hot water, add a
tempering (or mixing) valve above the hot water outlet on the hot
water heater—a valve that automatically lowers the temperature of
hot water when necessary by mixing in cold. Installation is
straightforward. Turn off the hot and cold water and drain the
system, then cut the supply pipes as necessary and install the valve.
Most external pumps are water-lubricated, and since water seeks its own level the pump
should be attached near the bottom of the tank. Connect the pump to the cold-water side
of the system, to a pipe run to the bottom of the tank, and prime it with water before
turning the system on for the first time. Different solar collector systems need different
size pumps: consult the dealer or a professional installer for help selecting the right size.
Wire the pump to a power source and to a “differential controller”—a type of thermostatic
control that switches on when the collector is warmer than the storage tank, following the
instructions for the control. Connect the water lines to the collector and to the potable
water lines as shown in the photo. NOTE: Use pipe straps and blocking as necessary to
secure the pipes. We’ve omitted them from this photo for clarity.
Install the tempering valve on the hot water line after it comes out
of the heater, before it goes to any fixtures. Connect it to the cold
water line. Then reconnect the hot water supply for the house
fixtures to the outlet marked “Mix.” If you buy a valve with sweat
connections, remove the knob and the thermostatic controls inside
the valve before soldering, then reinstall them when the pipes are
cool.
OTHER TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTORS

Pressurized, closed-loop system: This system uses propylene glycol mixed with
water, and is commonly used in cold climates. The heat is transferred to a storage
tank by way of heat exchanger, and a pump and controller are used to move the
antifreeze through the system. In order for the system to be absolutely safe (and to
meet code requirements) the heat exchanger pipes must be double-walled, so that if
a leak does develop it won’t contaminate the potable water. The antifreeze also must
be propylene glycol, a less toxic type of antifreeze. Don’t use ethylene glycol (the type
used in cars).

This type of system requires an expansion tank and other special components, and
should be installed only by an expert or by a highly qualified DIYer. Plans and finished
work must be approved by a plumbing inspector.

Evacuated-tube collector: This type of collector has to be purchased from

a supplier, although homeowners can install it. Water pipes in this system,
instead of running through an insulated box, are installed inside a round
tube of insulated glass. The vacuum inside the insulated glass allows light
through, but slows heat loss. Evacuated-tube collectors are more efficient
than flat-plate collectors in partially sunny or cloudy conditions.
Batch heaters: Instead of pipes, the storage tank itself is mounted outside
in a large, insulated heat collector box. It can be mounted above or below
the water heater, because pressurized house water flows through it
whenever hot water is called for. Batch heaters are sold commercially and
can also be made from scratch by a resourceful homeowner, but like the
thermosyphon system are generally not suitable for cold climates because
of the risk of freezing pipe.
Solar Hot Air Collector—Window Mount
One of the simplest and most cost-effective ways to harvest solar power is
with a hot air collector. If you stand in front of a south-facing window on
a sunny day, even in winter, you’ll understand the basic idea. A solar hot
air collector absorbs heat from the sun on a black metal plate in a large,
insulated box, then the heat is transferred to cool air flowing over the
metal plate from inside the house. As the warmer, lighter air rises out the
top of the collector into the house, cooler air from the lower part of the
house is drawn in at the bottom of the collector.

Large hot air collectors built into walls are capable of heating a
whole house on sunny days. This window collector won’t do that
unless you live in a super-insulated house, but it can still make a
dent in your heating bills. And it’s designed to be removable, so in
the warm months when you don’t need it you can just take out a
few screws and store it in the garage, then put the window air
conditioner in.
There is no standard size for this collector; make it as wide as your
window and 4 to 6 ft. long. The lower end can either be set against
the ground, if it’s close enough, or attached to the house with wood
braces. Place it in a south-facing window that gets at least 5 or 6
hours of direct sun every day, and don’t forget to close the flaps
when the sun goes down so you don’t lose all the heat you gained.
CUTTING LIST
KEY / PART / NO. DIMENSION MATERIAL
A Sides (2) ¾" × 64" × 19" Plywood
B Ends (2) ¾" × 247/16" × 7½" Plywood
C Stops (2) 1½" × 1½" × 25⅞" 2×2
D Side nailers (2) ¾" × 2½" × 48" 1×3
E End nailer (1) ¾" × 2½" × 20¾" 1×3
F Back (1) ¼" × 46" × 24½" Plywood
G Upper back (1) ¼" × 10" × 24½" Plywood
H Divider (1) ¼" × 44" × 22½" Plywood
I Upper divider (1) ¼" × 14¼" × 22½" Plywood
J Upper nailer (2) ¾" × 2½" × 14" 1×3
K Top cap (1) ¾" × 10¼" × 25⅞" Plywood
L Top door (1) ¾" × 7¼" × 25⅞" 1×8
M Bottom door (1) ¾" × 4" × 25⅞" 1×6
N Glazing (1) 52" × 25⅞" Polycarbonate
O Corners (2) 1½" × 1½" × 53" Aluminum
P Side brace (2) ¾" × 3½" × 25½" 1 × 4 PT
Q Back brace (1) 1½" × 3½" × 25⅞" 2 × 4 PT
R Heat absorber (1) 44" x 22½" Aluminum

NOTE: All dimensions are for a 26" wide window opening 4 ft. off the ground. Adjust for
your window.
Hot Air Collector
TOOLS & MATERIALS
Circular saw
Miter saw
Jigsaw
Drill/driver with bits
Speed square
Angle measure
4-ft. level
Caulk gun
Razor knife
Tin snips
Clamps
Tape measure
¼" x 4 × 8 plywood
¾" x 4 × 8 AC or BC grade (one paint-grade side) exterior plywood
1 × 3" × 8' cedar or treated (for outside supports)
2 × 2" × width of window pine or hardwood
¾ × ¾" × 4'
1" × 8 × 8' (rip to size for doors)
1" × 4 × 8' polyisocyanurate insulation
Foam backer rod
Hinges
Self-adhesive weatherseal
Doublewall polycarbonate with tape or caps for ends (available from glass stores,
greenhouse suppliers or online)
Black aluminum sheet or 16" wide brown aluminum coil stock
Black high heat paint
1½" × 96" × 1/16" thick aluminum angle
1" deck screws
1⅝" deck screws
2" drywall screws
1½" neoprene screws
1" metal angle brackets
½" × 6 sheet-metal screws or stainless-steel staples
Construction adhesive (look for quick-gripping type compatible with foam insulation)
Clear silicone caulk
Aluminum tape
How to Construct the Collector

Mark a piece of plywood at the angle recommended for your latitude—see here. This
collector will face the sun at a 60° angle, but to make the best use of the plywood we’re
cutting the short horizontal side, so the speed square is set at 30°. The length of the
collector is 4 ft. (measured on the bottom), based on the available space from the window
to the ground. The short side is initially cut long, because the easiest way to cut it to exact
length is to mark it in place. Make the two sides mirror images, with the best side of the
plywood facing out.
Set one of the pieces in the window opening, with the short side level and sitting on the
inside sill, and the outside tight against the outside sill. Mark the edge of the inside sill and
the inside of the window sash. Mark and cut the end of the short piece 5⅝" from the
window sill mark at the bottom. To create a slope and a tight fit with the sash on the top,
measure the angle of the bottom of the window sash with an angle measure, then transfer
that angle to the top of the plywood, starting at the inside edge of the sash. Trim this top
edge with a circular saw.
Measure the distance between the stop moldings holding the window
sash in, then subtract 1½" to get the length of the end pieces, which fit
inside the side pieces. Predrill and screw the end pieces in place, then
fasten 2 × 2s across the frame at the sash and sill locations.
Line the sides and ends with 1" polyisocyanurate insulation. Leave the
foil side facing into the box and glue the insulation in place with
construction adhesive. Wrap the exposed upper edges with aluminum
foil tape to protect the insulation from UV rays. Cut the insulation ¼"
narrower than the plywood sides so that the bottom piece of ¼"
plywood will fit in between the sides.
Screw the 1 × 3 nailers to the sides of both the long and short pieces using 2¼" screws.
Place the nailers 1¼" from the bottom edge to leave room for 1" insulation and ¼" plywood.
Fasten ¼" plywood to the top of the 1 × 3 to divide the incoming cool
air from the hot air. Leave a 3" gap at the lower end of the plywood for
air flow. Butt the two pieces of plywood together at the bend, then
cover the small gap with a double layer of aluminum tape. Caulk the
gaps at the end and at the corners of the insulation.
Turn the box over, then add the 1" insulation to the bottom of the box,
then cover it with the ¼" plywood. Glue the plywood to the insulation
and screw it to the 1 × 3 nailer with 2¼" screws.
Cut two ¾" nailers an inch shorter than the plywood divider, then
fasten them to the plywood and the 1 × 3 to create an air channel
above and below the heat-absorbing aluminum. Cut the aluminum to
fit across the box, then attach it to the nailers with stainless-steel
staples or ½" sheet-metal screws. NOTE: We used a thick, pre-painted
aluminum sheet that’s available online. If you use aluminum coil stock,
paint it black after installing it. See Resources.
Cut and install 1" insulation to fit the angled top, from the 2 × 2 to the
outside corner. Caulk any gaps along the sides. Spread a bead of glue
on the insulation, then cover it with ¾" plywood screwed across the
top, and extending from the 2 × 2 to 1" beyond the outside corner.
Clamp the plywood and insulation until the glue sets.
Cut the polycarbonate glazing so that it matches the width of the box.
Cut it long enough so it tucks under the overhang at the top and hangs
over ½" at the bottom. Make sure to install it with the UV-protected
side up (the side with the label).
The vertical ribs add strength and insulation value to lightweight
doublewall polycarbonate, and the two layers help it resist fogging.
Cover the top end with waterproof tape and the bottom end with a
permeable tape that keeps bugs out.
Spread silicone on the plywood edge and set the glazing in place,
pushing it under the plywood edge at top and clamping the bottom to
hold it in place. Predrill holes in the aluminum corner before you set it
in place, and cut the upper end to fit the angle of the top. Spread a
bead of silicone about 1" from the outside edge of the glazing and set
the aluminum corner over it. Hold the aluminum down firmly and
evenly and screw it to the plywood sides with the 1½" screws. Clamp
the glazing at the bottom for a few hours until the silicone sets up.
Cut aluminum or galvanized coil stock to cover the top, measuring
from the 2 × 2. Cut it 3" longer and wider, then clamp the coil stock
between the table and a piece of wood and make a 1½" bend at the
front and the rear. The front and rear bends should go in opposite
directions. Make a 1½" cut on both sides 1½" in from the front and
back so that the sides can bend down. Place the coil stock on the top
of the plywood, with the back bent up tight against the 2 × 2 so it fits
behind the window. Then fold the front down over the glazing and
bend the excess back around the sides. Finally, fold the sides down
and screw them in place with the ½" screws.
Cut 1 x 8s to fit for covers for the inlet and outlet, so that heat won’t be
lost when the sun goes down. Apply self-adhesive weatherseal around
the edges, then screw on two or three hinges, depending on the width
of the window. Use hooks to hold the upper cover in place and small
barrel bolts to hold the lower cover.
Set the solar collector in the window with the inside 2 × 2 tight against
the sash and the outside pushed against the sill (you’ll need a helper
for this). Fasten 1 × 3 supports to the sides, then screw them to the
house with metal angle brackets or a 2 × 4 between the supports.
Attach the collector to the window sash on the inside with small angle
brackets placed on the 2 × 2. Wedge foam backer rod or other type of
weatherseal into gaps around the window jamb and into the gap
between the upper and lower sash.
WORKING WITH DOUBLEWALL POLYCARBONATE

Doublewall polycarbonate is often used in greenhouses—and for solar projects—

because it’s lightweight, has some insulation value, and doesn’t fog over with
condensation. It’s also much less expensive, much lighter, and much less breakable
than insulated glass. It can be cut easily with a saw, and it transmits almost as much
light as insulated glass. Most suppliers carry it in 4 ft. and 6 ft. widths and up to 20
ft. in length (look for greenhouse or plastics suppliers in your area, or check online).

One side of the polycarbonate has UV protection that keeps it from getting hazy and
cracked, as happens with standard plexiglas. Make sure you install the panels with
this side facing up. Once installed, the top of a panel is sealed with waterproof foil
tape or caps; the bottom is sealed with a breathable tape that keeps dust and bugs
out but lets moisture drain through.

Polycarbonate is cut and drilled with standard woodworking tools. Use a blade with
10–12 teeth per inch, like a fine-toothed plywood cutting blade. Polycarbonate moves
with temperature changes, so drill holes 1/16" larger than the fasteners and don’t
overtighten. The panels are fastened with neoprene screws (screws with wide heads
and neoprene rubber washers attached). A wide variety of glazing accessories for
joints, corners and roof caps is available if you make a larger project.
Hot Air Collector—Roof Mount
The solar hotbox works on the same general principle as the window hot
air collector in the previous project, but it’s a big step up in size and
amount of heat generated. Designed to work with an existing forced-air
heating system, this hotbox can carry a substantial amount of the heating
load for an average residence—up to 40% for the home where this project
was done. With gas prices rising all the time, that can quickly add up to
serious money.

As always, the most cost-effective way to save money on energy

costs is by sealing air leaks and adding more insulation, but once
you’ve done that, this project is a good next step. Mounted on a
south-facing wall or on the roof, the collector takes air from inside
your home and blows it through the thermal solar panels, which are
essentially a series of metal ducts in a black box under tempered
glass. As the air moves through the ductwork, the sun’s rays cause it
to heat to high temperatures. Then, at the end of the duct, another
vent moves the air back into your home’s heating ductwork or an
interior vent, sending the now-heated air right into the home. It’s
basically a forced-air heater that uses the sun for heat instead of gas
burners.
The flow of air is controlled by a fan and vent dampers. The fan only
turns on when the thermostat calls for heat and the temperature in
the hotbox is higher than the temperature in the house, so there’s
no heat loss during the night or on cloudy days, even though the
hotbox requires two holes cut in the roof. It’s also possible to put a
variation of this design on a south-facing wall, as long as it gets at
least 6 hours of sunlight per day.
You can build solar hot air panels yourself. The style shown here is
simple: essentially, a box, a series of ducts, and a piece of glass. The
panels are permanently installed and ducted in to your home,
complete with automated thermostatic controls. In this project, we’ll
walk you through one version of a solar hot air panel designed and
installed by Applied Energy Innovations of Minneapolis, Minnesota
(see Resources), with the help of homeowner Scott Travis.

When combined, these three DIY “hotboxes” introduce enough hot air
into this home to carry 30 to 40% of the home heating load.
 Anatomy of a Hot Air Solar Panel

The solar hot box is a very simple system. Cold air from the house is
drawn up into a network of ducts in the collector, where it is warmed
by the sun then circulated inside to heat the house.
TOOLS & MATERIALS
Metal-cutting saw
Drywall saw
Straightedge
Aviation snips
Tape measure
Temperature controls
Eye and ear protection
Carpenter’s square
Drill/driver with bits
⅛" pop rivets
Pop rivet gun
Caulk gun
Aluminum foil tape
Rubber gasket roofing nails
2 × 6 steel studs
Utility knife
8" blower fan
4" hole saw
Trim paint roller
Sheet-metal screws with rubber gaskets
Chalkline
Scissors
Reciprocating saw
Roof jack
High-temperature black paint (matte)
4" aluminum HVAC duct
1"-wide closed-cell foam gasket
4" male and female duct connectors
(2) 8" plenum box
High-temperature silicone caulk
Cardboard
Sheet-metal start collars
Roofing cement
1"-thick R7 rigid insulation
¼" tempered glass
Flashing
Shingles (if needed)
Unistrut
Unistrut connectors
(2) Duct collars
⅜" threaded rod
Spring-fed 8" backdraft dampers

The temperature control equipment opens and closes the damper

and causes the blower fan to turn on and off as needed.
Cut and bend the box frame pieces from 2 × 6 steel studs. Each steel
stud piece will wrap two sides of the panel with a 90° corner bend.
Mark the bend location on both steel studs. Cut a relief into the 6" side
of the stud with aviation snips at this mark. Bend the stud to an L-
shape and use a square to ensure that the corner forms a true 90°
angle.
Drill ⅛"-dia. holes in the overlapping top and bottom flanges. Clamp
the corners together before drilling, using a square to make sure the
corner forms a 90° angle.
Fasten the corners of the metal box with two ⅛"-dia. sheet-metal pop
rivets in the top and bottom. Leave one corner open to create access
for the insulation panel insert.
Cut the foil-faced rigid foam insulation to match the interior
dimensions of the box, using a drywall saw or a utility knife.
Apply high-temperature silicone to the bottom flanges of the box
(inset). Fit the 1" foil-faced from step #4 into the back of the frame,
then close up the box and secure the open corner. Cut 5"-wide strips of
foam insulation to the length and width of the panel. Place a thick
bead of silicone around the outside perimeter of the unit. Insert the
strips into the silicone and press tightly against the sides of the panel
to hold the backing firmly in place. The foil should be facing into the
box.
Seal the insulation edges. Place a bead of silicone around the inside
corner where the insulation strips and backing panel meet, and then
seal with foil tape. Flip the panel over. Place a bead of silicone on the
intersection of the 2 × 6 stud flange and the back of the insulation, and
seal with foil tape. Conceal any exposed insulation edges with foil
tape.
Create inlet and outlet holes in the walls with a hole saw or circle
cutter. The number and location of the ductwork holes depends on
where each panel fits into the overall array (presuming you are making
and installing multiple panels). The first and last panels in the series
will each have one end wall that is uncut, while intermediate panels
will have duct holes on each end wall (inset).
Install a compartment separator in the first and last panels with a
piece of foil insulation set on edge. Cut ductwork access holes in the
separator. Then, cut out holes for the ductwork that will pass through
the separator. Also cut a plenum opening in the separated
compartment in the first and last unit.
Paint the entire box interior using black high-temperature paint and
allow it to dry completely. A trim roller works well for this task.
Insert the ductwork. Beginning at the inlet duct, guide 4" aluminum
HVAC ductwork in a serpentine shape throughout the entire multipanel
installation, ending at the outlet duct. Join ends of adjoining duct
sections with flexible duct connectors fashioned into a U shape and
secured with metal screws and foil tape (inset). Paint each section of
ductwork with black high-temperature paint once it is in place.
Paint the last section of ductwork and touch up around the interior of
the box so all exposed surfaces are black.
Affix the glass top. First, double-check that all openings in the panel
are adequately sealed and insulated. Then, line the tops of the steel
stud frame with foam closed-cell gasket tape. Carefully position the
glass on top of the gasket tape, lined up ½" from the outside of the
frame on all sides. Then, position foam closed-cell gasket tape around
the perimeter of the top of the glass panel.
Attach the casing. Work with a local metal shop to bend metal flashing
that will wrap your panel box. Attach it around the perimeter of the
panel with sheet-metal screws with rubber washer heads. TIP: Be
careful when working around the plenum ductwork. If you set the unit
down on its back side, you will force the plenum up and break the seal
around the opening.
Mark off the panel layout locations on the roof. Transfer the locations
of the 8"-dia. inlet and outlet holes to the roof as well. The location of
these holes should not interfere with the structural framing members
of your roof (either rafters or trusses). Adjust the panel layout slightly
to accommodate the best locations of the inlet and outlet, according
to your roof’s setup. Cut out the inlet and outlet holes with a
reciprocating saw.
Use a roof jack or Cone-jack to form an 8"-dia. opening. Apply a heavy
double bead of roofing cement along the top and sides of the roof
jack. Nail the perimeter of the flange using rubber gasket nails. Cut
and install shingles with roofing cement to fit over the flashing so they
lie flat against the flange.
Attach Unistrut mounting U-channel bars to the roof for each panel.
Use the chalklines on the roof to determine the position of the
Unistrut, and attach to the roof trusses with Unistrut connectors.
Hoist the panels into position. Carefully follow safety regulations and
use scaffolding, ladders, ropes, and lots of helpers to hoist the panels
onto the roof. Wear fall-arresting gear and take care not to allow the
plenum ductwork to be damaged.
Connect the inlet and outlet ducts on the panel(s) to the openings on
the roof. Position the panels so the inlet and outlet openings match
perfectly, and attach with a duct collar and silicone caulk.
Connect the panels to the Unistrut with ⅜" threaded rod attached at
the top and bottom of the panel on the outside. Cut threaded rod to
size, then attach to the Unistrut with Unistrut nuts. Attach the top clip
to the top of the rod and the front face of the panel. Tighten the
assembly to compress the panel down to the Unistrut for a tight hold.
Seal the panel connections with 1” foam gasket tape around each end
of the panels where they connect. Place a bead of silicone caulk on
top of the gasket tape and then attach 3"-wide flashing over the two
panels at the joint. Attach flashing to the panel with galvanized sheet-
metal screws with rubber gasket heads.
Hook up the interior ductwork, including dampers and a blower fan. The manner in which
this is done will vary tremendously depending on your house structure and how you plan
to integrate the supplementary heat. You will definitely want to work with a professional
HVAC contractor (preferably one with solar experience) for this part of the job.
ANOTHER TYPE OF SOLAR HEATER

Manufactured solar air heaters are available in a variety of sizes and

styles and can be built in or attached to an existing wall or roof. Here, a
solar air heater was built into the framing of the wall, with the siding
trimmed around it (see Resources).
Solar Still
Make your own distilled water from stream or lake water, salt water, or
even brackish, dirty water, using this simple solar distiller. With just a few
basic building materials, a sheet of glass and some sunshine, you can
purify your own water at no cost and with minimal effort.

Distilled water is not just for drinking, and it’s always worth keeping
a few gallons of it on hand. Clean water free of chemicals and
minerals has a number of valuable uses:
Always refill the lead-acid batteries used for solar energy systems
or automobiles with distilled water
Water delicate plants like orchids with distilled water; minerals
and additives like fluoride or chlorine that are present in most tap
water can harm plants
Distilled water mixed with antifreeze is recommended for car
radiators, as it’s less corrosive
Steam irons become clogged with mineral deposits unless you
use distilled water

The principle of using the sun’s heat to separate water from

dissolved minerals has been understood for millenia, salt ponds
being the best example of how this knowledge has been put to use
in the past. In salt ponds, seawater is drained into shallow ponds
and then baked and purified in the sun until all that remains are
crystals of salt. In this case, the pure water that gradually
evaporated away was considered a useless byproduct, but as far
back as the time of the ancient Greeks it was known that seawater
could be made fresh and drinkable by this process.
A solar still works like a salt evaporation pond, except that the water
that invisibly evaporates is extracted from the air; the minerals and
other impurities are left behind and discarded. As the hot, moisture-
laden air rises up to the slanting sheet of relatively cool glass sealed
to the box, water condenses out in the form of small droplets that
cling to the glass. As these droplets get heavier, they roll down the
glass to the collector tube at the bottom and then out to the jug.

Distill your own crystal clear, chemical-free drinking water with a

solar distiller.
Studies in Distilled Water

The power of the sun is used to remove the water from these
shallow evaporation ponds so that valuable salt can be
extracted. A solar still uses the same process, but instead
captures the purified water.
A glass of icy-cold water shows how a solar still is able to
capture pure water. Since the glass panel is cooler than the
air inside the still, moisture condenses on it just like it does
on this glass. Here the process is slow, but with the heat of
the sun driving it a solar distiller works much more quickly.
This illustration from a 19th century magazine shows the workings of a distillation
apparatus. A gas line feeds a flame that boils a sealed container of water. The steam
expands into the glass tube and condenses in another glass vessel immersed in a bowl of
cool water. Cool water from the bucket drips steadily into the bowl, keeping the
temperature of the water down. The solar distiller works on a similar principle, except the
sun is used as a heat source.

This industrial-scale desalination plant removes salt and minerals from millions of gallons
of water every day.
 SOLAR STILL

The box is built from ¾" BC-grade plywood, painted black on the
inside to absorb heat. We used a double layer of plywood on the
sides to resist warping and to help insulate the box, with an
insulated door at the back and a sheet of glass on top.
Finding a good lining or container to hold the water in the inside of
the box as it heats and evaporates can be complicated. The
combination of high heat and water containing salt or other
contaminents can corrode metals faster than usual and cause plastic
containers to break down or off-gas, imparting an unpleasant taste
to the distilled water. The best liners are glass or stainless steel,
although you can also coat the inside of the box with two or three
coats of black silicone caulk (look for an F.D.A.-listed type approved
for use around food). Spread the caulk around the bottom and sides
with a taping knife. After it dries and cures thoroughly, just pour
water in—the silicone is impervious to the heat and water.
We chose to paint the inside black and use two large glass baking
pans to hold the water. Glass baking pans are a safe, inexpensive
container for dirty or salty water, and they can easily be removed for
cleaning. We used two 10 × 15" pans, which hold up to 8 quarts of
water when full. To increase the capacity of the still, just increase
the size of the wooden box and add more pans.
The operation of the distiller is simple. As the temperature inside the
box rises, water in the pans heats up and evaporates, rising up to
the angled glass, where it slowly runs down to the collector tube and
then out to a container.
The runoff tube is made from 1" PEX tubing. Stainless steel can also
be used. However, use caution with other materials—if in doubt, boil
a piece of the material in tap water for 10 minutes, then taste the
water after it cools to see if it added any flavor. If it did, don’t use it.
Turn undrinkable water into pure, crystal-clear distilled water with a
home-built solar still.
CUTTING LIST
KEY MATERIAL / NUMBER DIMENSION
A Rigid insulation (1) ¾" × 23¾" × 19"
B Plywood (1) ¾" × 23¾" × 19"
C Plywood (1) ¾" × 5¾" (high side) × 19"
D Plywood (1) ¾" × 5⅝" (high side) × 20½"
E 2 × 4 (2) 1½" × 3½" × 22½"
F Plywood (1) ¾" × 3" × 20½" (long to short
edge)
G Plywood (1) ¾" × 5⅞" × 20½"
H Plywood (1) ¾" × 9" × 20½" (to long edge)
I Plywood (2) ¾" × 9⅛" × 5⅛" × 26¾"
J Plywood (2) ¾" × 8⅞" × 5⅝" × 24½"
K Tempered glass (1) 27¼" × 22" × ⅛"
L PEX tubing, cut to length (1) 1"
TOOLS & MATERIALS
Drill/driver with bits
Circular saw
Speed square
Straightedge
Caulk gun
Razor knife
Clamps
Tape measure
2 × 4 × 8' pressure treated
(1) ¾ × 4' × 8' sheet of BC exterior plywood
(2) 1½" galvanized hinges
Self-adhesive weatherseal (8')
Knob or drawer pull
27¼" × 22" × ⅛" (minimum) glass
Silicone caulk
High-temperature black paint
1" PEX tubing
(2) 10" × 15" glass baking pans
Wood glue
1¼", 2", 2½" deck screws
Painter's tape
Mark and cut the plywood pieces according to the cutting list, here.
Cut the angled end pieces with a circular saw or tablesaw set to a 9°
angle.
Cut the insulation the same size as the plywood base, then screw both
to the 2 x 4 supports with 2½" screws.
Screw the first layer of front and side pieces to the base and to each other, then add the
back piece. Predrill the screws with a countersink bit.
Glue and screw the remaining front and side pieces on, using clamps
to hold them together as you predrill and screw. Use 1¼" screws to
laminate the pieces together and 2" screws to join the corners.
Glue and screw the hinged door pieces together, aligning the bottom
and side edges, then set the door in position and screw on the hinges.
Add a pull or knob at the center.
Paint the inside of the box with black high-temperature paint. Cover the back and the door
with reflective foil glued with contact cement. Let the paint dry for several days so that all
the solvents evaporate off.
Apply weatherseal around the edges of the hinged door to make the
door airtight.
Drill a hole for the PEX drain. The top of the PEX is ½" down from the
top edge. Clamp a scrap piece to the inside so the drill bit doesn’t
splinter the wood when it goes through.
Mark the first 19" of PEX, then cut it in half with a utility knife. Score it
lightly at first to establish the cut lines.
Drill three ⅛" holes in the side of the PEX for screws, then insert the
PEX through the hole. Butt it tight against the other side, then screw it
in place, sloping it about ¼".
Wipe a thick bead of silicone caulk along the top edge of the PEX to
seal it against the plywood.
Shim the box level and tack a temporary stop to the top edge to make
it easy to place the glass without smearing the caulk. Spread a
generous bead of caulk on all the edges, then lay the glass in place.
Tape it down around the edges with painter’s tape, then let it set up
overnight.
 Resource Guide

Guide to Federal, State And Local Incentives

DSIRE - Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency
[Link]

General Information about Solar Energy

Build It Solar
[Link]
U.S. Dept. of Energy
[Link]
Florida Solar Energy Center
[Link]/en
Home Power Magazine archive
[Link]/home
Find My Shadow (solar position charts)
[Link]

Solar Energy Products and Materials

Real Goods
(866) 596-6940
[Link]
Backwoods Solar
(208) 263-4290
[Link]
Northern Arizona Solar and Electric
(800) 383-0195
[Link]
Silicon Solar
(800) 786-0329
[Link]

Mounting Systems
IronRidge
[Link]
Unistrut
[Link]
Unirac
[Link]

Solar Cooking
Solar Cookers International
[Link]
Solar Cooker-at-Cantinawest
[Link]
Solar Oven Society
[Link]

Solar Hot Water

U.P. Solar Solutions
(888) 744-8797
[Link]

Solar Reflective Foils

Clear Dome Solar Thermal
(619) 990-7977
[Link]

Solar Air Heaters

Your Home Solar
(865) 226-3101
[Link]

Polycarbonate Panels
Tuftex
(800) 777-7663
[Link]
Greenhouse Megastore
(888) 281-9337
[Link]
Advance Greenhouses
(877) 238-8357
[Link]
 Photo Credits

[Link]: pages 8 (top left and middle), 10, 12, 21 (top

left), 21 (bottom left), 23, 24, 25, 28 (top), 29, 31 (bottom right),
32, 33, 35 (bottom), 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45 (top), 64, 67
(top left), 68, 69, 73, 77 top, 84, 86, 87, 96, 107, 126, 128, 129

US Air Force/Nadine Y. Barclay: page 8 (top right)

[Link]: pages 27, 31 (top right), 34, 35 (top), 45

(bottom), 66, 67 (top left), 72 (bottom), 77 (bottom)

Active Ventilation Products, [Link]: page 31 (bottom

left)
 Glossary
Absorber
Material that captures solar rays (photons) so they may be converted to electrical current
(electrons).
Activated shelf life
Amount of time a stored battery will hold usable charge.
Alternating Current (AC)
Electrical current that is distributed in reversing cycles (60 cycles per second in the U.S.)
through wall outlets or a DC to AC converter.
Amorphous silicon
A thin film of silicon-base, photovoltaic cells with no crystalline structure, usually applied to
a substrate.
Amperage Interrupt Capability (AIC)
A rating indicating the highest amount of current a DC fuse will interrupt.
Ampere (amp)
A unit of electrical current equal to one volt across one ohm of resistance.
Anode
The positive electrode in a battery.
Antireflection
coating A thin layer applied to a solar cell surface to limit light loss due to reflection.
Base load
The minimum amount of electric power a utility must supply at all times (on average).
Battery
Electrochemical cells within a container and connected to provide a proscribed amount of
required voltage and current when fully charged.
Battery cycle life
The number of charge/discharge cycles a battery can undergo before failing to meet
performance specifications.
Btu (British Thermal Unit)
A unit for measuring heat output. It is the amount of heat (252 calories) needed to raise
the temperature of one pound of water 1°F.
Catastrophe fuse
A fuse in a photovoltaic system that is designed to trip and shutoff inflow of current in the
event of an extreme power surge, protecting the downstream devices.
Cell
One unit of a device that produces direct voltage by converting chemical energy into
electrical energy.
Charge controller
A device in a photovoltaic system that controls and limits the flow of current from the
source and into and out of the battery.
Cloud enhancement
The increase in solar intensity caused by light that is reflected by clouds.
Conductor
Any material through which electricity is transmitted: usually refers to an electrical wire.
Converter
A device that converts electrical current from DC to AC, or vice versa.
Crystalline silicon
A photovoltaic cell created with a slice of single-crystal silicon or polycrystalline silicon.
Cutoff Voltage
The amount of electrical voltage that, usually in a power surge, causes the charge
controller to disconnect the battery from the photovoltaic system.
Deep-cycle battery
A type of battery (such as a marine battery) that can endure a high number of
charge/discharge cycles.
Diffuse Radiation
Solar radiation that has been reflected or scattered by the atmosphere and ground.
Diode
An electronic device that restricts current flow to a single direction.
Direct beam radiation
Radiation received from direct sunlight.
Direct current (DC)
Electrical current that flows in one direction only, usually from a battery and in relatively low
voltage (compared to AC).
Discharge
The outflow of electrical energy stored in a battery.
Discharge rate
The rate at which current flows out of a battery, usually expressed in amperes or time.
Dry Cell
A battery that can’t be recharged because it has a sealed electrolyte.
Electric circuit
A defined path through which electrical current flows out and returns.
Electric current
Electrical energy, measured in amperes, that flows through a conductor.
Electrode
A conductor that contacts a ground.
Electrolyte
A nonmetallic conductor that carries current generated by the movement of ions instead of
electrons.
Float charge
The amount of voltage required to counteract the natural discharge of a battery so it
remains fully charged.
Frequency
The number of repetitions, expressed in Hertz (Hz), that a wave repeats to complete a
waveform.
Fresnel lens
A device formed by concentric rings of lenses that focus light to increase its intensity.
Full Sun
The amount of solar power hitting the Earth's surface at noon on a clear day (approximate
amount is 1,000 watts per square meter).
Gigawatt (GW)
A unit of power (equals 1 billion watts or 1 million kilowatts or 1,000 megawatts).
Grid-connected system
A solar electric system that is integrated into the utility power service system.
Grid Lines
Contacts on the surface of a PV cell to provide a low resistance path for electrons to flow
out.
High voltage disconnect
The electrical voltage level that, when encountered, causes the charge controller to
disconnect the battery from the photovoltaic system.
Hybrid system
A solar electric system integrated with a wind generator or other power source.
Hydrogenated amorphous silicon
Silicon containing a small amount of hydrogen to allow charge carriers to flow more freely.
Input voltage
The power required by an electrical load.
Interconnect
A conductor connecting two or more solar cells.
Inverter
A device that changes DC electrical current to AC current, usually so it can operate AC-
powered electrical equipment.
Ion
An atom that has lost or gained electrons and become positively or negatively charged.
Joule
A metric unit of energy; 1 joule per second equals 1 watt (or 0.737 foot-pounds); 1 Btu
equals 1,055 joules.
Kilowatt (kW)
A unit of electrical power equal to 1000 watts.
Kilowatt-Hour (kWh)
1,000 watts acting over a period of 1 hour. Used mostly as a measure on utility bills.
Lead-acid battery
A battery with pure lead plates, lead-antimony, or lead-calcium in an acid electrolyte.
Load
The equipment or component in an electrical circuit that is the consumer of the power.
Low voltage warning
A buzzer or light that signals battery voltage has dropped below a set point.
Maintenance-free battery
A sealed battery with an electrolyte that cannot be replenished.
Megawatt (MW)
1,000 kilowatts or 1 million watts; used to list the capacity of electric power plants.
Multicrystalline
A semiconductor material composed of small, individual crystals. Also called polycrystalline
or semicrystalline.
Multi-stage controller
A charge controller device that adjusts charging current according to a battery’s state of
charge.
N-Type
Semiconductor material (silicon) with a negative charge (surplus of electrons).
Ohm
A unit of measure of electrical resistance in which the potential difference of 1 volt produces
a current of 1 amp.
Orientation
PV panel placement relative to compass directions.
Panel
See photovoltaic (PV) panel.
Parallel connection
To join solar cells or photovoltaic units by connecting the positive leads in one series and
the negative leads in another.
Peak sun hour
The time it takes for solar irradiance to amount to 1,000 watts over an area of one square
meter.
Phosphorous (P)
A chemical element used in making n-type semiconductors.
Photocurrent
A radiant electrical current.
Photoelectric cell
A device for measuring light intensity.
Photon
A particle of light.
Photovoltaic (PV)
Converting light to electricity.
Photovoltaic (PV) array
A system of solar panels that cooperatively produce electrical current.
Photovoltaic (PV) cell
A single semiconductor element within a PV grouping.
Photovoltaic (PV) effect
The basis of solar power collection: photons in light beams displace electrons that are
captured and harnessed to convert to voltage.
Photovoltaic (PV) panel
A panel made up of multiple PV modules for the purpose of collecting photocurrent.
Polycrystalline silicon
A mineral used to construct photovoltaic cells.
P-Type
A positive semiconductor (silicon) with a deficit of electrons
PV
See photovoltaic.
Regulator
A device that prevents the overcharging of batteries.
Resistance
The effect, measured in ohms, that occurs when a conductor opposes electrical flow,
resulting in the generation of heat.
Reverse current protection
Prevents current in the battery from flowing back to its source.
Sealed Battery
A battery with an electrolyte that cannot be replenished.
Secondary battery
Any rechargeable battery.
Self-discharge
The natural loss of current in a stored battery.
Semiconductor
A material that conducts electricity but with resistance in a very specific range.
Series connection
Joining photovoltaic cells by connecting positive leads to negative leads.
Shallow-cycle battery
A small-plate battery that can withstand only limited charge/discharge cycles.
Silicon (Si)
A semiconducting chemical element used in the manufacture of photovoltaic devices.
Single-crystal silicon
Type of silicon commonly used to make PV cells.
Solar panel
See photovoltaic (PV) panel.
Stand-alone system
A freestanding electrical distribution system that is not integrated with another power
source or any other power grid system.
State-of-Charge (SOC)
The amount of voltage available in a battery.
Substrate
The base material on which PV cells are housed.
Thermophotovoltaic Cell (TPV)
A device that is heated by absorbed sunlight to produce thermal radiation that assists in
conversion in a PV cell.
Thin film
A layer of semiconductor material that is used in the manufacture of photovoltaic cells.
Tracking array
A grouping of PV panels that rotate and move to track the position of the sun for maximum
solar gain.
Transformer
An electromagnetic device that steps down the voltage of alternating current.
Trickle charge
To apply charge at a low rate that compensates for discharge in a stored battery.
Underground Feeder (UF)
Exterior-rated electrical cable that may be used as wiring in a photovoltaic array.
Vented cell
A battery with a mechanism for expelling gases.
Volt (V)
A unit of electrical force that will cause a current of one amp to flow through a resistance of
one ohm.
Voltage protection
A feature that will disconnect a battery if input voltage limits are exceeded.
Watt
Energy transfer rate of one amp under an electrical pressure of one volt. The product of
voltage and current (amperage).
 Conversions

METRIC EQUIVALENT
Inches (in.) 1/64

Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 0.40
(mm)
Centimeters
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 1/32

Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 0.79
(mm)
Centimeters
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 1/25

Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 1
(mm)
Centimeters
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 1/16

Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 1.59
(mm)
Centimeters
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) ⅛
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 3.18
(mm)
Centimeters
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) ¼
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 6.35
(mm)
Centimeters
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) ⅜
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 9.53
(mm)
Centimeters 0.95
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 2 /5

Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 10
(mm)
Centimeters 1
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) ½
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 12.7
(mm)
Centimeters 1.27
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) ⅝
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 15.9
(mm)
Centimeters 1.59
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) ¾
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 19.1
(mm)
Centimeters 1.91
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) ⅞
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 22.2
(mm)
Centimeters 2.22
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 1
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 25.4
(mm)
Centimeters 2.54
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 2
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 50.8
(mm)
Centimeters 5.08
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 3
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 76.2
(mm)
Centimeters 7.62
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 4
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 101.6
(mm)
Centimeters 10.16
(cm)
Meters (m)
Inches (in.) 5
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 127
(mm)
Centimeters 12.7
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 6
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 152
(mm)
Centimeters 15.2
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 7
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 178
(mm)
Centimeters 17.8
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 8
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 203
(mm)
Centimeters 20.3
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 9
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 229
(mm)
Centimeters 22.9
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 10
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 254
(mm)
Centimeters 25.4
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 11
Feet (ft.)
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 279
(mm)
Centimeters 27.9
(cm)
Meters (m)

Inches (in.) 12
Feet (ft.) 1
Yards (yd.)
Millimeters 305
(mm)
Centimeters 30.5
(cm)
Meters (m) .30

Inches (in.) 36
Feet (ft.) 3
Yards (yd.) 1
Millimeters 914
(mm)
Centimeters 91.4
(cm)
Meters (m) .91

Inches (in.) 39.4

Feet (ft.) 31/12
Yards (yd.) 11/12
Millimeters 1,000
(mm)
Centimeters 100
(cm)
Meters (m) 1.00
CONVERTING MEASUREMENTS
TO CONVERT: TO: MULTIPLY BY:
Inches Millimeters 25.4
Inches Centimeters 2.54
Feet Meters 0.305
Yards Meters 0.914
Square inches Square centimeters 6.45
Square feet Square meters 0.093
Square yards Square meters 0.836
Ounces Milliliters 30.0
Pints (U.S.) Liters 0.473 (lmp. 0.568)
Quarts (U.S.) Liters 0.946 (lmp. 1.136)
Gallons (U.S.) Liters 3.785 (lmp. 4.546)
Ounces Grams 28.4
Pounds Kilograms 0.454

TO CONVERT: TO: MULTIPLY BY:

Millimeters Inches 0.039
Centimeters Inches 0.394
Meters Feet 3.28
Meters Yards 1.09
Square Square inches 0.155
centimeters
Square meters Square feet 10.8
Square meters Square yards 1.2
Milliliters Ounces .033
Liters Pints (U.S.) 2.114 (lmp.
1.76)
Liters Quarts (U.S.) 1.057 (lmp.
0.88)
Liters Gallons (U.S.) 0.264 (lmp.
0.22)
Grams Ounces 0.035
Kilograms Pounds 2.2
CONVERTING TEMPERATURES
Convert degrees Fahrenheit (F) to degrees Celsius (C) by following
this simple formula: Subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit temperature
reading. Then, multiply that number by 5/9. For example, 77°F – 32
= 45. 45 × 5/9 = 25°C.
To convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit, multiply the
Celsius temperature reading by 9/5. Then, add 32. For example,
25°C × 9/5 = 45. 45 + 32 = 77°F.

DRILL BIT GUIDE

Twist Bit
 Self-piloting

Spade Bit

Adjustable Counterbore
 Hole Saw

NAILS
Nail lengths are identified by numbers from 4 to 60 followed by the
letter “d,” which stands for “penny.” For general framing and repair
work, use common or box nails. Common nails are best suited to
framing work where strength is important. Box nails are smaller in
diameter than common nails, which makes them easier to drive and
less likely to split wood. Use box nails for light work and thin
materials. Most common and box nails have a cement or vinyl
coating that improves their holding power.
COUNTERBORE, SHANK & PILOT HOLE DIAMETERS
Screw Size Counterbore Clearance Pilot Hole Diameter
Diameter Hole
for Screw Head for Screw Hard Wood Soft Wood
Shank
#1 .146 9/64 5/64 3/64 1/32

#2 ¼ 3/32 3/64 1/32

#3 ¼ 7/64 1/16 3/64

#4 ¼ ⅛ 1/16 3/64

#5 ¼ 9/64 5/64 1/16

#6 5/16 5/32 3/32 5/64

#7 5/16 5/32 3/32 5/64

#8 ⅜ 11/64 ⅛ 3/32

#9 ⅜ 11/64 ⅛ 3/32

#10 ⅜ 3/16 ⅛ 7/64

#11 ½ 3/16 5/32 9/64

#12 ½ 7/32 9/64 ⅛

 Index

A
AC circuit breakers, 34, 36
amorphous solar cells, 17
angle for solar panels, 45, 47

B
batch heaters, 107
batteries, 29, 32, 38–39

C
car batteries, 39
cell-phone chargers, 28
charge controllers, 32
circuit breakers, AC, 34, 36
collectors
evacuated-tube, 66, 107
gallery of, 66–73
ground-mounted, 43
roof-mounted, 45, 117–125
window-mounted, 109–115
compound miter corner cuts, 80
conversions, 140
copper, soldering, 95
copper tubing heater panel, 88–95
counterbore diameters, 141

D
Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency, 18
DC lighting circuits, wiring, 59–63
DC load center, 34
DC safety disconnect, 34, 36
deep-cycle batteries, 39
desalination plants, 129
distilled water, 127–129
doublewall polycarbonate, working with, 115
drainback systems
storage tanks for, 98–107
year-round use of, 73
drill bit guide, 141

E
economics of solar electricity, 17–19
evacuated-tube collectors, 66, 107

F
framed modules, 16
fuse, catastrophe, 32

G
grid-connected systems, 14–15, 36–37
ground-mounted solar panels, 43

H
handles for solar ovens, 83
heaters. See water heaters, solar
hot air collectors, solar
roof mount, 45, 117–125
window mount, 109–115

I
installation, working with professionals for, 19–20
inverters, 32, 36

L
lead-acid batteries, 39
light systems
security, 56–63
stand-alone, 51–55
load center, DC, 34

M
measurements, converting, 140
metric equivalents, 140
miter corner cuts, compound, 80
monocrystalline solar panels, 16, 24
mounting solar panels, 41–49, 58
multicrystalline panels. See polycrystalline solar panels
multimeters, 31

N
nails, 141

O
off-the-grid systems, 14–16, 34–35, 56–63
ovens, solar, 75–83

P
parabolic reflectors, 67
pilot hole diameters, 141
polycarbonate, working with doublewall, 115
polycrystalline solar panels, 14, 16, 24
portable systems, 32–33
professionals, working with, 19–20
R
rechargeable batteries, 38–39
reflectors, parabolic, 67
resources, 136
rigid modules, 16
roof vents, 30–31

S
safety, 20–21
safety disconnect, DC, 34
salt ponds, 127
sealed-cell batteries, 39
security light, solar-powered, 56–63
shank diameters, 141
solar cookers/ovens, 69, 75–83
solar electricity/electric systems
applications for, 22–23
assembling, 27–39
economics of, 17–19
grid-connected systems, 14–15, 36–37
introduction to, 11
larger systems, 30–31
mounting solar panels, 41–49
off-the-grid systems, 14–16, 34–35, 56–63
portable systems, 32–33
solar-powered home, 13–25
solar-powered security light, 56–63
stand-alone solar light system, 51–55
starter systems, 28–29
whole house systems, 36–37
solar foil, handling, 83
solar heat
collecting heat of the sun, 66–73
introduction to, 65
solar cookers/ovens, 69, 75–83
solar hot air collectors, 109–125
solar stills, 127–135
solar water heaters, 85–107
uses for, 68–73
solar light system, stand-alone, 51–55
solar panels
amorphous solar cells, 17
angle for, 45, 47
ground-mounted, 43
monocrystalline, 16, 24
mounting, 41–49, 58
polycrystalline, 14, 16, 24
safety, 20–21
supports for, 42, 44–45, 46–49
thin-film, 17, 42
types of, 16
working with professionals, 19–20
solar-powered home, 13–25
soldering copper, 95
stand-alone light systems, 51–55
stills, solar, 127–135
storage tanks, 98–107
supports, 42, 44–45, 46–49
system monitors, 34

T
temperatures, converting, 140
tempering valves, installing, 106
thermosyphons, 67, 86, 87, 96–97
thin-film solar panels, 17, 42

V
vents, roof, 30–31

W
water heaters, solar
copper tubing heater panel, 88–95
drainback system storage tank, 98–107
introduction to, 85
thermosyphons, 67, 86, 87, 96–97
types of, 86–87
wells and irrigation, 30–31
wet-cell batteries, 39
whole house systems, 36–37
[Link]

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NOTICE TO READERS
For safety, use caution, care, and good judgment when following the procedures
described in this book. The publisher cannot assume responsibility for any damage
to property or injury to persons as a result of misuse of the information provided. The
techniques shown in this book are general techniques for various applications. In
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