Clock rate These are two possibilities for increasing the clock rate ‘R’. 1.
Improving the IC technology
makes logical circuit faster, which reduces the time of execution of basic steps. This allows the clock
period P, to be reduced and the clock rate R to be increased. 2. Reducing the amount of processing done
in one basic step also makes it possible to reduce the clock period P. however if the actions that have to
be performed by an instructions remain the same, the number of basic steps needed may increase.
Increase in the value ‘R’ that are entirely caused by improvements in IC technology affects all aspects of
the processor’s operation equally with the exception of the time it takes to access the main memory. In
the presence of cache the percentage of accesses to the main memory is small. Hence much of the
performance gain excepted from the use of faster technology can be realized.
A memory unit stores binary information in groups of bits called words. Data
input lines provide the information to be stored into the memory, Data output
lines carry the information out from the memory. The control lines Read and
write specifies the direction of transfer of data. Basically, in the memory
organization, there are 2l 2l memory locations indexing from 0
to 2l−1 2l−1 where l is the address buses. We can describe the memory in
terms of the bytes using the following
formula: N=2lBytes N=2lBytes Where, l is the total address buses N is
the memory in bytes For example, some storage can be described below in
terms of bytes using the above formula:
1kB= 210 Bytes
64 kB = 26 x 210 Bytes
= 216 Bytes
4 GB = 22 x 210(kB) x 210(MB) x 210 (GB)
= 232 Bytes
Memory Address Register (MAR) is the address register which is used to
store the address of the memory location where the operation is being
performed. Memory Data Register (MDR) is the data register which is used
to store the data on which the operation is being performed.
1. Memory Read Operation: Memory read operation transfers the desired
word to address lines and activates the read control [Link] of
memory read operation is given below:
In
the above diagram initially, MDR can contain any garbage value and MAR
is containing 2003 memory address. After the execution of read
instruction, the data of memory location 2003 will be read and the MDR
will get updated by the value of the 2003 memory location (3D).
2. Memory Write Operation: Memory write operation transfers the address
of the desired word to the address lines, transfers the data bits to be
stored in memory to the data input lines. Then it activates the write control
line. Description of the write operation is given below:
In the
above diagram, the MAR contains 2003 and MDR contains 3D. After the
execution of write instruction 3D will be written at 2003 memory location.
Advantages of Read Operations:
Speed: Read operations are generally faster than write operations since the
data is already stored in the memory.
Efficiency: Read operations are more efficient since they do not require
modifying the data in memory.
Non-destructive: Read operations do not modify the data in memory, so
they can be performed repeatedly without affecting the stored data.
Disadvantages of Read Operations:
Limited functionality: Read operations only retrieve data from memory, so
they cannot be used to modify the data.
Security risks: Read operations can be used to access sensitive data
stored in memory, making them a potential security risk.
Advantages of Write Operations:
Flexibility: Write operations allow data to be modified, making them useful
for storing and updating information in memory.
Dynamic: Write operations allow data to be changed in real-time, making
them essential for many computing applications.
Customization: Write operations allow users to customize and personalize
their computing experience by modifying stored data.
Disadvantages of Write Operations:
Slower: Write operations are generally slower than read operations since
the data needs to be modified and then written back to memory.
Overwriting risk: Write operations can overwrite existing data in memory,
leading to data loss or corruption.
Wear and Tear: Repeated write operations can cause wear and tear on
memory cells, leading to reduced reliability and lifespan.
