Introduction to Structures

Subject code: CE 211

Civil Engineering (NQF Level 8)
By: Dr. Meseret Dawit Teweldebrihan
 Analysis of Trusses
Understanding Joint Equilibrium.
 Core Principle:
 If a truss is in equilibrium, each individual joint within the truss is also in equilibrium.
 This allows us to isolate joints and analyze them separately.
 Key Concept:
• apply the fundamental equations of static equilibrium to each isolated joint. (For 2D
trusses, we only use these two equations).
 Method of Joints
Method Overview:
 Systematically isolate each joint in the truss.
 Treat each joint as a free body diagram (FBD).
 Apply equilibrium equations to solve for unknown member forces.
Goal:
 Determine the axial forces (tension or compression) in each truss member.
 Step-by-Step Procedure
 Step 1: Draw the Free Body Diagram (FBD) of the Entire Truss:
 Calculate and determine the external reactions at the supports.
 This ensures global equilibrium before analyzing individual joints.
 Step 2: Select a Starting Joint:
 Choose a joint with at least one known force and no more than two unknown member forces. This allows for solvable equations.
 Step 3: Draw the Free Body Diagram (FBD) of the Selected Joint:
 Isolate the joint and represent all member forces as vectors. Assume member forces are in tension (pulling away from the joint)
unless otherwise known.
 Step 4: Apply Equilibrium Equations:
 Apply the equations of equilibrium (∑F x​ =0 and ∑F y​ =0) to the FBD. Solve for the unknown member forces.
 Step 5: Repeat for Other Joints:
 Move to another joint with no more than two unknown forces. Use the calculated forces from previous joints as known values.
Continue until all member forces are determined.
 Step 6: Determine Member Force Type:
 If the calculated force is positive, the member is in tension. If the calculated force is negative, the member is in compression
 Analysis of Trusses
Key Considerations
 Accuracy:
• Careful drawing of FBDs is crucial.
• Consistent sign conventions are essential for accurate calculations.
 Efficiency:
• Strategic selection of joints can simplify the analysis.
• Solving simultaneous equations may be necessary for some joints.
 Applications:
• Useful for determining internal forces in trusses used in bridges, roofs, and other
structures.
 Types of Trusses and Understanding Structural Frameworks
 What is a Truss?
 A structural framework composed of interconnected triangles and Designed to efficiently distribute loads.
 Commonly used in bridges, roofs, and towers.
 Key Advantages:
 High strength-to-weight ratio, Ability to span long distances.
 Versatility in design and application.
 Pratt Truss:
 Characterized by vertical members and diagonal members sloping downwards towards the center.
 Diagonal members are primarily under tension when subjected to downward loads and Efficient
for moderate spans. And used for Bridges and Roofs
 Howe Truss:
 Diagonal members slope upwards towards the center.
 Diagonal members are primarily under compression when subjected to downward loads and
Historically used in timber bridges. Uses: Bridges and Roofs
 Warren Truss:
 Features equilateral or isosceles triangles.
 Diagonal members alternate between tension and compression.
 Efficient for long spans. And used for Bridges and Roofs
 Types of Trusses and Understanding
Structural Frameworks
 King Post Truss:
 Simplest truss design, with a single vertical member (king post), Suitable for short spans
and Often used in residential construction. And used for Small roof structures
 Fink Truss:
 Characterized by numerous short, diagonal members.
 Commonly used in roof construction and Efficient for supporting sloping roofs.
 Uses: Roof structures
 Summary
 Trusses are essential structural elements.
 Different truss types are designed for specific applications and load conditions.
 Understanding truss design is crucial for safe and efficient construction.
 Types of Trusses and Understanding Structural
Frameworks
 Queen Post Truss:
• Similar to the king post truss, but with two vertical members (queen posts).
• Suitable for slightly longer spans than king post trusses.
• Uses: Small to medium roof structures
 Bowstring Truss:
• Features a curved upper chord, resembling a bow.
• Efficient for long-span roofs.
• Aesthetically pleasing.
• Uses: Long span roofs such as airplane hangers.
 Example
 The plane truss shown in Fig. below has four joints and five members. Find support
reactions at A and B and then use the methods of joints and sections to find all
member forces. Let P = 35 kips and c = 10 ft.

Figure: Plane truss model

 Solution
 Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: First sketch a free-body diagram of the entire truss
model (Fig. below).Only known applied forces at C and unknown reaction forces at A and B
are shown and then used in an equilibrium analysis to find the reactions.
 Categorize [simplify, classify]: Overall equilibrium requires
that the force components in x and y directions and the moment
about the z axis must sum to zero; this leads to reaction force
components Ax, Ay, and By. The truss is statically determinate
(unknowns: m + r = 5 + 3 = 8, knowns: 2 j = 8), so all member
forces can be obtained using the method of joints. If only a few
selected member forces are of interest, the method of sections
can be used. Use a statics sign convention when computing
external reactions and a deformation sign convention when
solving for member forces.
 Solution
 Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical solution]:
 First find the lengths of members AC and BC needed to compute distances to lines of action of
forces.
 Law of sines to find member lengths a and b: Use known angles ӨA,ӨB, and ӨC and c =10
ft to find lengths a and b:
 Solution
 Support reactions: Using the truss model
free-body diagram, sum forces in x and y
directions and moments about joint A:

 Reaction force components Ax and Ay are both negative, so

they act in the negative x and y directions, respectively,
based on a statics sign convention.

Member forces using method of joints: Begin by drawing free-body diagrams of the pin at each
joint. Use a deformation sign convention in which each member is assumed to be in tension (so
the member force arrows act away from the two joints to which each member is connected). The
forces are concurrent at each joint, so use force equilibrium at each location to find the unknown
member forces.
 Solution
 First sum forces in the y direction at joint A to find member force AC, and then sum forces in
the x direction to get member force AD:

 Summing forces at joint B gives member forces BC and BD as

 The minus sign means that member BC is in compression, not in tension as assumed. Finally,
observe that CD is a zero-force member because forces in the y direction must sum to zero at
joint D.
Properties of Cross-Sections and
Distributed Forces

Centroids, Area Moment of Inertia, Section

Modulus, and Resultant Forces
 Properties of Cross-Sections and
Distributed Forces
Centroids, Area Moment of Inertia, Section Modulus, and Resultant Forces
 Understanding the characteristics of cross-sections and how distributed forces act on them is
crucial to structural mechanics.
 Understanding Cross-Section:
 Cross-sectional properties are crucial for structural analysis, determining a member's
resistance to various loads.
• Cross-sections define the shape and dimensions of structural elements.
• Properties like centroid, area moment of inertia, and section modulus dictate behavior under stress.
• These properties are essential for designing safe and efficient structures.
Centroids, Area Moment of Inertia, Section
Modulus, and Resultant Forces
 Centroid: The Geometric Center
 The centroid is the geometric center of an area, representing the average position of all points in the shape.
• Definition: The point where the entire area of a cross-section can be assumed to be concentrated.
• Calculation: For simple shapes, centroids are easily determined; for complex shapes, integration or
composite methods are used.
• Significance: Crucial for understanding bending and stability.
 Area Moment of Inertia: Resistance to Bending
 The area moment of inertia quantifies a cross-section's resistance to bending about a specific axis.
• Definition: A measure of a shape's effectiveness in resisting bending.
• Calculation: Depends on the shape and the axis of rotation.
• Significance: Higher moment of inertia means greater resistance to bending.
Centroids, Area Moment of Inertia, Section
Modulus, and Resultant Forces
 Section Modulus: Bending Stress Capacity
 The section modulus relates the area moment of inertia to the extreme fiber distance,
indicating bending stress capacity.
• Definition: A measure of a beam's strength with respect to bending.
• Calculation: Calculated by dividing the area moment of inertia by the distance
from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber.
• Significance: Higher section modulus means greater bending stress capacity.
Application of Centroids to Distributed
Forces
 Centroids and Distributed Forces.
 Centroids are essential for determining the resultant of distributed forces, simplifying
complex loading scenarios.
• Distributed forces: Forces acting over an area or length, such as fluid pressure or
weight.
• Resultant force: A single force that has the same effect as the distributed force.
• Centroid location: The location of the resultant force corresponds to the centroid
of the distributed force diagram.
 Distributed Forces:
Distributed forces are loads that act over a length, area, or volume, rather than at a
single point. Understanding how to handle these forces is essential for accurate
structural analysis.
 Equivalent Concentrated Force:
• For analysis, distributed loads are often converted into equivalent concentrated forces.
• The magnitude of the equivalent force is equal to the area under the distributed load curve.
• The location of the equivalent force is at the centroid of the distributed load area.
 Effect on Shear and Bending Moment:
• Distributed loads create varying shear forces and bending moments along a structural element.
• The distribution of the load determines the shape of the shear and bending moment diagrams,
which are crucial for determining maximum stresses and deflections.
• For example a uniform distributed load will create a linear shear force diagram, and a parabolic
bending moment diagram.
 Determining the Resultant of
Distributed Forces
 Finding the Resultant Force
 The resultant force's magnitude and location are determined using the centroid and
area of the distributed force diagram.
 Magnitude: The magnitude of the resultant force is equal to the area under the
distributed force diagram.
 Location: The location of the resultant force is at the centroid of the distributed force
diagram.
 Example: For a rectangular distributed load, the resultant is at the midpoint.
 Properties of Cross-Sections
 Cross-sectional properties describe the geometric characteristics of a structural element's shape, which
significantly influence its behavior under load. These properties are crucial for calculating stresses and
deflections.
 Moment of Inertia:
• This property measures a cross-section's resistance to bending. A higher moment of inertia indicates greater resistance
to bending deformation.
• It depends on the shape and distribution of the area of the cross-section relative to a reference axis (the neutral axis).
• I = ∫ y^2 dA
• Where I is the moment of inertia, y is the distance from the neutral axis, and dA is a differential area.
 Area:
• The cross-sectional area directly affects the element's resistance to axial loads. A larger area means lower axial stress
for a given load.
• It is a basic, yet vital property for stress calculations.
• A = ∫ dA
• Where A is the cross sectional area, and dA is a differential area.
 Deflection of Beams
Method of Double Integration
A Powerful Tool for Analyzing
Beam Deflection
Deflection of Beams: Method of Double Integration
A Powerful Tool for Analyzing Beam Deflection

 Understanding Beam Deflection

 Beams under load experience deformation, including deflection (vertical displacement).
 Accurate deflection calculation is crucial for structural integrity and serviceability.
 Various methods exist to determine beam deflection, including double integration.
 Deflection is the vertical displacement of a point along the longitudinal axis of the beam.

 The Method of Double Integration: Deflection by Double Integration (Direct Integration)

 Also known as the "direct integration" or "constant integration" method.
 Relies on the relationship between beam curvature and bending moment.
 Involves integrating the beam's differential equation twice.
 The method is best suited for beams where the load distribution is continuous along the beam
 The Differential Equation of the Elastic
Curve
The Foundation: Differential Equation
 The core equation:
• EI = Flexural rigidity (Modulus of Elasticity x Moment of Inertia)
• y = Deflection of the beam
• x = Distance along the longitudinal axis of the beam.
• M(x) = Bending moment as a function of x
 This equation relates the beam's curvature to the applied bending moment.
 Derivation of the Equation of the Elastic
Curve of a Beam
 The elastic curve of a beam is the axis of a
deflected beam, as indicated in Figure. (a).

Fig. The elastic curve of a beam

 To derive the equation of the elastic curve of a beam, first derive the equation of bending.
• Consider the portion 𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑓 of the beam shown in Figure (a), subjected to pure moment, 𝑀, for the derivation
of the equation of bending. Due to the applied moment 𝑀, the fibers above the neutral axis of the beam will
elongate, while those below the neutral axis will shorten. Let 𝑂 be the center and 𝑅 be the radius of the
beam’s curvature, and let 𝑖𝑗 be the axis of the curved beam. The beam subtends an angle 𝜃 at 𝑂. And let 𝜎 be
the longitudinal stress in a filament 𝑔ℎ at a distance 𝑦 from the neutral axis.
 Derivation of the Equation of the Elastic Curve of a Beam
 From geometry, the length of the neutral axis of the beam 𝑖𝑗 and that of the filament 𝑔ℎ, located at a distance 𝑦 from the neutral axis of the
beam, can be computed as follows:
• 𝑖𝑗 =𝑅𝜃 and 𝑔ℎ = (𝑅 +𝑦)𝜃
 The strain 𝜀 in the filament can be computed as follows:
 For a linear elastic material, in which Hooke’s law applies, equation above can be written as follows:
 If an elementary area 𝛿𝐴 at a distance 𝑦 from the neutral axis of the beam (see Figure (c)) is subjected to a bending stress 𝜎, the elemental force
on this area can be computed as follows: 𝛿𝑃 = 𝜎𝛿𝐴
 The force on the entire cross-section of the beam then becomes:
 From static equilibrium consideration, the external moment 𝑀 in the beam is balanced by the moments about the neutral axis of the internal
forces developed at a section of the beam. Thus,
 Substituting from equation above in suggests the following:
 Putting into equation above suggests the following:
 Where 𝐼 = the moment of inertia or the second moment of area of the section. Combining equations
From differential calculus, the curvature at any point along a curve can be expressed as follows: , is negligibly insignificant
therefore and
Rearranging equation yields the following:
 Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages:
 Provides a fundamental understanding of beam deflection.
 Relatively straightforward for beams with continuous loading.
 Produces an exact solution.
 Limitations:
 Can become complex for beams with discontinuous loading or multiple loads.
 Requires careful application of boundary conditions.
 Not ideal for complex beam geometries.
 Conclusion
 The double integration method is a valuable tool for analyzing beam deflection. Understanding the
differential equation and boundary conditions is crucial. This method provides a solid foundation
for more advanced deflection analysis techniques.
Beam Deflection
Calculator
 Deflection calculating
in encastre beams with
fixed support
 Example
A cantilever beam is subjected to a combination of loading, as shown in Figure a.
Using the method of double integration, determine the slope and the deflection at
the free end.

Fig. (a) Cantilever beam.

 Solution
 Equation for bending moment. Passing a section at a distance 𝑥 from the free-end
of the beam, as shown in the free-body diagram in Figure (b), and considering
the moment to the right of the section suggests the following:
 Substituting M into suggests the following:

 Equation for slope. Integrating with respect to 𝑥 suggests the following:

 Observe that at the fixed end where ; this is referred to as the boundary condition. Applying these
boundary conditions to equation above suggests the following:

 To obtain the following equation of slope, substitute the above computed value:
 Equation for deflection. Integrating equation above suggests the following:
 At the fixed end 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑦 = 0. Applying these boundary conditions to equation above suggests the following:

 To obtain the following equation of elastic curve, substitute the computed value;

 The slope at the free end, i.e., at 𝑥 = 0 is:

 The deflection at the free end, i.e., y at 𝑥 = 0 is :

 Example
A beam carries a distributed load that varies from zero at support 𝐴 to 50
kN/m at its overhanging end, as shown in Figure a. Write the equation of
the elastic curve for segment 𝐴𝐵 of the beam, determine the slope at
support 𝐴, and determine the deflection at a point of the beam located 3 m
from support 𝐴.

Fig. Beam.
 Solution
 Support reactions. To determine the reactions of the beam,
apply the equations of equilibrium, as follows:

Equation for bending moment. The moment at a section of a distance 𝑥 from support 𝐴, as shown in the free-body
diagram in Figure b, is as follows:0 < 𝑥 < 6

Substituting for M into equation

Equation for slope. Integrating equation 2 with respect to 𝑥 suggests the following:
Equation for deflection. Integrating equation 3 suggests the equation of deflection, as follows:
 Solution
To evaluate the constants of integrations, apply the following boundary conditions
to equation 4:

Equation of elastic curve. The equation of elastic curve can now be determined by substituting into equation 4.

Equation of slope.

Equation of deflection.
 Sign Convention
 For a positive curvature diagram, where
there is a positive ordinate of the diagram,
the load in the conjugate should point in the
positive y direction (upward) and vice versa

Fig.. Positive curvature diagram.

If the convention stated for positive
curvature diagrams is followed, then a
positive shear force in the conjugate beam
equals the positive slope in the real beam,
and a positive moment in the conjugate
beam equals a positive deflection (upward
movement) of the real beam.

Fig.. Shear and slope in beam.