NCERT Geography (Class 6–11) content.
This will help in preparation
for exams like TGT, OTET, CTET, OSSTET, etc.
🌍 1. Orders of Landforms
🔹 First Order Landforms (Largest features)
● Formed by: Plate tectonic movements (endogenic forces)
● Examples:
○ Continents: Asia, Africa, North America, South America,
Antarctica, Europe, Australia
○ Ocean Basins: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian
Ocean, Arctic Ocean
🔹 Second Order Landforms
● Formed by: Tectonic forces like folding, faulting, volcanic activity
● Continental Examples:
○ Mountains: Himalayas (fold mountains), Western Ghats
(block mountains)
○ Plateaus: Deccan Plateau (India), Colorado Plateau (USA),
Tibetan Plateau
○ Plains: Indo-Gangetic Plain, Great Plains (USA)
● Oceanic Examples:
○ Mid-Ocean Ridge: Mid-Atlantic Ridge
○ Ocean Trenches: Mariana Trench, Java Trench
🔹 Third Order Landforms
● Formed by: Weathering, erosion, deposition (exogenic forces)
● Examples:
○ Valleys, sand dunes, beaches, cliffs, caves, deltas
○ India: Sundarbans Delta, Thar Desert dunes, Ganga river
valley
🏞️ 2. Development of Landforms – Work of Natural Agents
🌊 A. Rivers (Fluvial Landforms)
🔸 Erosional Features:
● V-shaped Valley – Early stage, formed by vertical erosion (e.g.,
Alaknanda Valley)
● Waterfalls – River falls from height over resistant rocks (e.g., Jog
Falls)
● Gorge – Deep narrow valley (e.g., Gandikota Gorge, Andhra
Pradesh)
🔸 Depositional Features:
● Floodplains – Deposits on riverbanks during floods (e.g., Ganga
Floodplains)
● Meanders – Loops in mature rivers (e.g., Yamuna near Delhi)
● Ox-bow Lake – Cut-off meander (e.g., in Bihar & Bengal
floodplains)
● Delta – Deposits at mouth of river (e.g., Sunderban Delta)
💨 B. Wind (Aeolian Landforms) – Prominent in desert areas like
Thar Desert
🔸 Erosional:
● Mushroom Rocks – Wind erodes lower part more than top
● Deflation Hollows – Shallow depressions formed by wind removal
🔸 Depositional:
● Sand Dunes:
○ Barchans – Crescent-shaped, windward side gentle
○ Seif dunes – Longitudinal dunes parallel to wind
● Loess – Fine silt carried by wind (e.g., Loess Plateau, China)
❄️ C. Glaciers (Glacial Landforms) – Found in Himalayas, Alps,
Arctic
🔸 Erosional:
● Cirque – Bowl-shaped hollow
● Arete – Sharp ridge between two cirques
● Horn – Pyramidal peak (e.g., Matterhorn)
● U-shaped Valley – Deep valleys with flat floors
🔸 Depositional:
● Moraines – Ridges of debris (lateral, medial, terminal)
● Drumlins – Oval-shaped hills formed by glacial deposition
● Eskers – Long ridges of sand/gravel from meltwater rivers
🌋 3. Interior of the Earth
Layers:
Layer Depth Characteristics Material
(approx.)
Crust 5–70 km Solid, outermost Silica & Alumina
(SIAL)
Mantle 70–2900 km Semi-solid Silica &
Magnesium
(SIMA)
Core 2900–6371 km Liquid (outer) + Nickel & Iron
Solid (inner) (NIFE)
🔥 Seismic Evidence:
● Earthquake waves (P-waves & S-waves) help determine the
interior.
● Shadow Zones confirm liquid nature of outer core.
🪨 4. Rocks and Their Types
🧱 A. Igneous Rocks – “Primary Rocks”
● Formed by: Cooling and solidification of magma
● Intrusive: Cool slowly beneath surface → Granite
● Extrusive: Cool quickly on surface → Basalt
● Examples:
○ Deccan Trap (India) – Basalt
○ Granite (Jharkhand, Rajasthan)
🏜️ B. Sedimentary Rocks
● Formed by: Deposition and compaction of sediments
● Types: Clastic (sandstone), Chemical (limestone), Organic (coal)
● Examples:
○ Sandstone (Rajasthan)
○ Limestone (Madhya Pradesh)
○ Coal (Jharkhand, Odisha)
🔥 C. Metamorphic Rocks
● Formed by: Heat and pressure on existing rocks
● Examples:
○ Marble (from limestone)
○ Slate (from shale)
○ Gneiss (from granite)
○ Quartzite (from sandstone)
✅ Summary Points for Exam:
● Orders of landforms: First (continental), Second
(mountains/plateaus), Third (valleys/dunes).
● Rivers, wind, glaciers act as sculptors of Earth's surface.
● Earth’s interior structure is divided into 3 layers based on
composition and behavior.
● Rocks are classified by origin: igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic
— each with specific features and locations.
Here’s a detailed explanation with examples from NCERT
Geography Class 11 ("Fundamentals of Physical Geography") for each
topic:
🔶 1. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
🔸 Composition:
Gas % in Atmosphere Role
Nitrogen (N₂) 78% Plant nutrition, dilutes
oxygen
Oxygen (O₂) 21% Essential for
respiration
Argon (Ar) 0.93% Inert gas
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) 0.03% Greenhouse gas,
used in
photosynthesis
Others Trace Ozone absorbs UV,
Methane is a GHG
📌 Example: Carbon dioxide traps heat – crucial for greenhouse
effect. Excess CO₂ leads to global warming.
🔸 Structure (by Temperature):
1. Troposphere (0–18 km)
○ All weather phenomena: clouds, rainfall, storms
○ Example: Thunderstorm formation
○ Temperature falls with height
2. Stratosphere (18–50 km)
○ Ozone layer absorbs UV rays
○ Example: UV protection for life on Earth
3. Mesosphere (50–80 km)
○ Coldest layer, meteors burn here
○ Example: Meteor shower visibility
4. Thermosphere (80–400 km)
○ High temperature due to solar radiation
○ Example: Auroras (Northern Lights)
5. Exosphere (above 400 km)
○ Outermost layer, satellites orbit here
🔶 2. INSOLATION AND TEMPERATURE
🔸 Insolation:
● The sunlight received on Earth’s surface
● Greatest at the equator, least at the poles
● Affected by:
○ Latitude (equator gets vertical rays)
○ Day length (longer days = more insolation)
○ Cloud cover
○ Albedo (reflectivity of surface)
📌 Example: Snow-covered areas like Greenland reflect more sunlight
→ cooler temperature due to high albedo.
🔸 Temperature:
● Measured using thermometers
● Influenced by:
1. Latitude – Equator is warmer than poles
2. Altitude – Hill stations are cooler
■ Example: Shimla is cooler than Delhi
3. Ocean currents – Warm currents (e.g., Gulf Stream) raise
temp
■ Example: Western Europe’s mild winters
4. Distance from sea – Coastal areas have moderate temps
■ Example: Mumbai vs Nagpur
5. Cloud cover – Clouds trap heat at night
■ Example: Cloudy nights are warmer
🔶 3. PRESSURE AND WINDS
🔸 Atmospheric Pressure:
● Decreases with altitude
● Measured using a barometer
● Equator: Low pressure (due to rising warm air)
● Poles: High pressure (cold, sinking air)
Pressure Belts (From Equator to Poles):
1. Equatorial Low (0°)
2. Subtropical High (~30° N/S)
3. Subpolar Low (~60° N/S)
4. Polar High (90° N/S)
🔸 Winds:
● Air moves from high to low pressure
● Modified by:
○ Coriolis Force – due to Earth’s rotation
○ Friction
Types of Winds:
1. Planetary Winds (Permanent)
○ Trade winds (0°–30°) → blow from east
○ Westerlies (30°–60°) → blow from west
○ Polar Easterlies
2. Seasonal Winds
○ Example: Indian Monsoon Winds – reversal in wind
direction
3. Local Winds
○ Land breeze & Sea breeze: day and night temperature
difference
○ Loo: Hot, dry wind in Northern India during summer
○ Chinook: Warm wind in North America (Rockies)
🔸 Jet Streams:
● Fast air currents in the upper troposphere
● Influence monsoons and cyclones
● Example: Western Disturbances in North India are guided by
subtropical westerly jet stream
🔶 4. HUMIDITY AND RAINFALL
🔸 Humidity:
● Amount of water vapor in air
● Relative humidity: Percentage of moisture in air compared to max
it can hold
● Affects cloud formation and precipitation
📌 Example: On a hot day, if humidity is high → feels hotter due to
reduced evaporation of sweat
🔸 Rainfall:
3 Types:
1. Convectional Rainfall
○ Intense heating → rising air → condensation
○ Daily afternoon rain in equatorial areas
○ Example: Amazon Basin
2. Orographic Rainfall
○ Moist air hits mountain → rises → cools → rains
○ Windward side gets rain, leeward side is dry (rain shadow)
○ Example: Western Ghats (Mangalore gets more rain than
Bengaluru)
3. Cyclonic Rainfall
○ Associated with depressions and cyclones
○ Common in temperate zones and monsoon onset
○ Example: Tropical Cyclone rainfall in Odisha/West Bengal
✅ Final Highlights (For Quick Revision)
Topic Key Example
Troposphere Rainfall, storms
Stratosphere Ozone layer protection
Insolation Equator receives most heat
Albedo Effect Snow reflects heat – cooler temp
Local Winds Loo in North India
Orographic Rain Western Ghats rain shadow
Cyclonic Rain Odisha cyclone rain
Jet Streams Affect Indian Monsoon
🌍 1. General Relief of the Ocean Floor
The ocean floor is divided into four major divisions and some minor
features. These are:
🔹 A. Continental Margin (edge of continents under ocean)
i. Continental Shelf
● Shallow, submerged edge of a continent.
● Width varies: narrow (Pacific coast of South America), broad
(Arctic Ocean and Bay of Bengal).
● Rich in fish, oil, and mineral deposits (e.g., Mumbai High).
ii. Continental Slope
● Steep slope beyond the shelf (200m to ~3000m).
● Marks boundary between continental and oceanic crust.
● Example: Off the eastern coast of the USA.
iii. Continental Rise
● Gently sloping area at base of the slope, formed by sediments.
● Found in passive continental margins like the Atlantic coast.
🔹 B. Deep Ocean Basins
i. Abyssal Plains
● Flat, deep-sea floor (3000–6000 m depth).
● Made of fine sediments from rivers, wind, and dead organisms.
● Example: North Pacific and North Atlantic abyssal plains.
ii. Mid-Oceanic Ridge
● Underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonics.
● Central rift valley where new crust forms.
● Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge – separates Eurasian and North
American plates.
iii. Ocean Trenches
● Deepest parts of oceans formed at subduction zones.
● Example:
○ Mariana Trench (Pacific Ocean, 11,034 m deep – deepest).
○ Java Trench (near Indonesia).
○ Peru-Chile Trench (along South America).
🔹 C. Minor Features
i. Seamounts
● Submarine volcanic mountains.
● Example: Emperor Seamounts (North Pacific).
ii. Guyots
● Flat-topped seamounts eroded above sea and submerged again.
● Example: Marshall Islands region (Pacific).
iii. Submarine Canyons
● Deep cuts in continental slope.
● Formed by river erosion or turbidity currents.
● Example: Hudson Canyon (off New York).
🌡️ 2. Salinity and Temperature of Ocean Water
🔹 Salinity Details
● Salinity = Salt content in water (measured in parts per thousand
‰).
● Average: 35‰
● Highest salinity: Between 20°–30° N and S (tropical/subtropical).
● Lowest: Equator (rainfall), polar regions (ice melt, low
evaporation).
🌍 Examples:
● Dead Sea: ~330‰ (extremely salty, high evaporation).
● Baltic Sea: ~7–8‰ (low salinity due to river inflow).
Factors Affecting Salinity:
Factor Effect
Evaporation ↑ Salinity ↑ (e.g., Red Sea)
Precipitation ↑ Salinity ↓ (e.g., equator)
River inflow ↑ Salinity ↓ (e.g., Ganges delta)
Ice melting ↑ Salinity ↓
🔹 Temperature of Ocean Water
● Highest at equator (~27–30°C).
● Lowest at poles (0°C or below).
● Decreases with depth:
○ Thermocline layer (rapid decrease between 500–1000 m).
🌍 Examples:
● Surface temperature: Bay of Bengal (warmer due to fresh water
input).
● Deep ocean: All oceans ~2–4°C.
🌊 3. Oceanic Circulation
🔹 A. Waves
● Transfer energy, not water.
● Generated by wind friction.
● Important for shaping coastlines.
Key Terms:
● Crest: Top of wave
● Trough: Bottom of wave
● Wave height: Vertical distance between crest and trough
● Wavelength: Distance between two crests
🔹 B. Tides
● Periodic rise/fall of sea level.
● Caused by gravitational pull of Moon (primary) and Sun
(secondary).
Types:
Type Condition
Spring Tide Sun, Moon & Earth in a line
(new/full moon) → higher high tide
Neap Tide Sun & Moon at right angles
(1st/3rd quarter) → lower high tide
🌍 Importance:
● Navigation in shallow harbours.
● Fishing (timing of tides affects fish).
● Tidal energy (e.g., Gulf of Kutch, India).
🔹 C. Ocean Currents
● Mass movement of surface water in oceans.
● Caused by wind, Coriolis effect, temperature/salinity differences.
Types:
● Warm Currents: From equator → poles (bring warmth).
● Cold Currents: From poles → equator (cool climate).
🌍 Major Ocean Currents:
Ocean Warm Currents Cold Currents
Atlantic Gulf Stream, North Labrador, Canary
Atlantic Drift
Pacific Kuroshio, East Oyashio, Peru
Australian (Humboldt)
Indian Agulhas, Somali West Australian
(summer)
Effects:
● Climate: Warm currents make coasts warmer (e.g., Norway), cold
currents cooler (e.g., Peru).
● Rainfall: Cold currents reduce evaporation → deserts (e.g.,
Atacama).
● Fishing: Mixing of warm & cold currents → nutrient-rich water
(e.g., Grand Banks).
