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ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY • Be handled for the minimum possible time
• Be handled only with tongs
RADIOACTIVITY
• Never be pointed at anyone
Radioactivity is a random process where a nucleus • Never be put in pockets
of some unstable isotopes decay giving ionising • Use of nuclear protective safety wear
radiation. During radioactivity either or both
alpha, beta and gamma radiations are produced.
BACKGROUND RADIATION
An alpha particle consists of two protons and two
neutrons. It is strongly ionising.
The natural radiation of low-level ionising effect
that is always present in the environment.
A beta particle is a high speed electron. It is
produced when a neutron has decays into an
• Radon gas
electron and proton. It is moderately ionising.
• Cosmic rays
Gamma rays are very high frequency • Rocks, soil – Terrestrial radiation
electromagnetic radiation. They are produced • Plants
when an unstable nucleus loses energy. They are • Air
weakly ionising.
• Water
Examples of radioactive materials • Internal radiation present in living things
• Mercury lamps PROBLEMS WITH NUCLEAR WASTE
• X-ray radiation
• Radon Nuclear waste is radioactive and may have to be
stored safely for thousands of years.
• Nuclear weapons
• The waste is stored in a lead sealed
DANGERS OF EXPOSURE TO
container.
RADIOACTIVE EMISSION AND HAZARDS
OF NUCLEAR RADIATION • Then containers are buried underground or
in seas or oceans.
• Sterilization • Lead sealed containing to stop leakage of
• Loss of hair waste into under ground water or seas.
• Central nerve system damage
• Damage or kill living cells. DETECTING RADIOACTIVITY
• Genetic mutation or cancerous growth. Radioactivity can be detected using
• Lastly death
• Photographic film or dosemeter -
Generally the less the dose the less the risk. it’s a film badge that will fog up or change
Exposure to low level of radiation does not cause colour when exposed to radiation
immediate health risk but can increase the risk of
• Geiger Muller Tube
developing some health risk as mentioned above.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND HANDLING
OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
• The main precaution is to reduce the
dosage received to the minimum possible.
• Store in a lead-lined container
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It consists of a tube filled with inert gas that Gamma rays are not deflected because they are
conduct electricity when radiation enters it. When not charged.
charged particle inters the tube, the electrical
Fleming left hand rule is used to show deflection
potential between the anode and cathode changes,
of alpha and beta. Where alpha will be in the same
hence ratemeter reading changes. direction as the convectional current and beta will
be on the opposite direction of the convectional
The thin mica window allows the least
current.
penetrating radiation (alpha) to enter the tube.
Gamma radiation and most beta can enter through SUMMARY ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA
the sides of the metal tube. RADIATION
THE PENETRATION POWER OF ALPHA,
BETA AND GAMMA
DEFLECTION BY ELECTRIC FIELDS
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom consists of a nucleus composed of proton
and neutron surrounded by an electron. An atom
Alpha particles are positive charges they move will always have the same number of electrons as
towards the negative plate, it is deflected less protons.
since it has more mass.
Nuclide notation
Beta particles are negative charges they move
towards positive plate and deflects more since
they have less mass.
Gamma particles no charge, hence not deflected A - Mass number also known as Nucleon number
(proton + neutron)
DEFLECTION BY MAGNETIC FIELDS Z - Atomic number also known as Proton number
N – Neutron number which is N=A-Z
X – Atomic symbol
Example
Deflection of beta is greater than of alpha since
alpha is massive than beta. A= 238, Z= 92, N=A – Z =146
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ISOTOPES Show how Sodium 25 (Na), atomic number 11,
will decay by beta emission to Magnesium (Mg).
Atoms of the same element that have different
number of neutrons but same number of protons. GAMMA DECAY- Gamma decay is the
Examples emission of electromagnetic radiation from
nucleus formed after emission of an alpha or beta
• Carbon 12 and carbon 14 particle. Gamma decay release more energy from
• Uranium 235 and uranium 232 formed nucleus into more stable nucleus and
gamma decay doesn’t change the A and Z of the
RADIOACTIVE DECAY formed nucleus.
Radioactive decay is the breakdown of unstable
nuclei into a more stable nucleus. Although it is a
random process. The parent nucleus becomes a
daughter nucleus and a particle (alpha or beta or
RADIATION AND HALF-LIFE
Gamma)
The half-life of a radioactive sample is the average
Parent nucleus Daughter Nucleus +
time taken for half of the original mass of the
Particle (γ, β, α)
sample to decay.
Notes:
Half-life in terms of activity of a source is the
• The mass and atomic numbers must
average time taken for the activity of the source to
balance on each side of the equation
decrease to half-life of its original valve.
• The beta particle, being negatively
charged, has an effective atomic number of
minus one.
ALPHA DECAY - Heavy nucleus spontaneously
emits alpha particle where the parent nucleus it’s
mass number(A) is reduced by 4 and atomic
number(Z) is reduced by 2.
The half-life will be 1 seconds.
Question Question
Show how Plutonium 239 (Pu) will decay by 1. At 10am in the morning a radioactive
alpha emission to Uranium (Z= 92). sample contains 80g of a radioactive isotope. If
the isotope has a half-life of 20 minutes calculate
BETA DECAY- Neutron spontaneously turns
the mass of the isotope remaining at 11am.
into proton hence an electron is emitted as beta
particle. Where the parent nucleus it’s mass 10am to 11am = 60 minutes
number(A) there is no reduction and atomic
number(Z) increase by 1. = 3 x 20 minutes
= 3 half-lives
mass of isotope = ½ x ½ x ½ x 80g therefore
mass at 11 am = 10g
Question
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2. Calculate the half-life of the radioactive • More energy is produced
isotope in a source if its mass decreases from 24g • No production of waste material or toxic
to 6g over a period of 60 days. half-life = 30 days material
• Unlimited fuel, hydrogen isotopes can be
3. The half-life of this americium nuclide is
generated from sea water
470years. A sample of this nuclide contains
8.0*10 power 14. After some time, 6.0*10power DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR FUSION
14 americium atoms have decayed. Calculate the
time required for this decay? Time =940years • Extreme heat is needed and high-pressure
conditions
4. A radioactive nuclide has a half-life of 4 • Expensive to setup
days. A sample contains 9.6*10 power 8 atoms of • Requires innovation, good material to
the nuclide. Calculate the number of atoms of the handle energy to be produced.
nuclide of the nuclide remaining after 12days?
Nuclide = 1.2*10 power 8 atoms USES OF RADIOACTIVITY
NUCLEAR FISSION MEDICAL TRACERS IN DIAGNOSIS
Splitting of heavy nucleus into two nuclei with
Radioactive tracers are used to follow the flow of
smaller mass numbers. Commonly used in nuclear
a substance through the body. Patient is injected
power stations and nuclear bomb.
with low ionising and high penetrative GAMMA
emitter source and a camera or detector is used to
trace the injected source. Alpha or beta would
not be able to pass out of the patient’s body.
ADVANTAGE OF NUCLEAR FISSION The source must have a enough half-life to remain
reasonably active over the period of observation -
• Less energy production
but not too long so that it does not irradiate the
• Can be controlled
patient’s body for a longer than needed.
• Less heat is needed
The radioactive substance must not be toxic nor
DISADVANATAGE OF NUCLEAR FISSION decay into a substance that is toxic or radioactive.
• Lots of radioactive by-products
TRACING UNDERGROUND LEAKS IN
• Shortage of finite supply of rare elements PIPES
of uranium
A radioactive tracer can be added to a fluid.
NUCLEAR FUSION
Where a leak occurs will be shown by an increase
Combing two light nuclei to form a heavier more in the count rate detected
stable nucleus more energy is released. Common
in starts and sun core and in some research labs
like ITER – International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor.
The source must emit BETA radiation. Alpha ray
ADVANTAGE OF NUCLEAR FUSION will not be able to pass through the ground above
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the pipe. Gamma radiation would give the same A source of ALPHA radiation must be used. Beta
count rate whether a leak was present. or gamma would not cause sufficient ionisation,
nor would they be affected by smoke.
The source must have a long enough half-life to
remain reasonably active over the period of RADIATION THERAPY
investigation, but not too long so that it does not
remain as a hazard to the environment. Fine beam of gamma rays is directed at the
tumour. The gamma ray source is rotated around
STERILISATION the patient arming at the tumour, this is done to
avoid damage to rest of the cells. Alpha and beta
Micro-organisms on medical instruments such as cannot penetrate patient body.
plastic syringes can be killed using a strongly
ionising source of radiation. This is called NUCLEAR POWER STATION
sterilisation. This process can be used on Fuel for power station- nuclear fission of uranium-
medical instruments while they are still within 235 release neutrons for chain reaction.
their packaging. The lifetime of food can also be
increased by irradiation.
AUTOMATIC THICKNESS MONITORING
The amount of radiation received by the detector
depends on the thickness of the aluminium foil. If
the thickness increases, then the detected radiation
reading decreases, hence the computer control
rollers to decrease the foil thickness or else a false
thickness increase will be detected as the activity
of the source decreases. A suitable isotope is a
beta emitter.
Alpha would not pass through the thinnest
aluminium. Gamma would not be affected by
any thickness change.
SMOKE DETECTORS
A radioactive source inside the alarm ionises an
air trapped inside so that it conducts electricity. In
a fire, smoke prevents the radiation causing
ionisation. The drop in electric potential caused by
smoke will sets off the alarm.
