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[108][111]
ddsas, and this atmospheric loss is being studied by
the MAVEN orbiter. Compared to Earth, the atmosphere of
Mars is quite rarefied. Atmospheric pressure on the surface
today ranges from a low of 30 Pa (0.0044 psi) on Olympus
Mons to over 1,155 Pa (0.1675 psi) in Hellas Planitia, with a
[112]
mean pressure at the surface level of 600 Pa (0.087 psi).
The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to that
[113]
found 35 kilometres (22 mi) above Earth's surface. The
resulting mean surface pressure is only 0.6% of Earth's
101.3 kPa (14.69 psi). The scale height of the atmosphere is
[114]
about 10.8 kilometres (6.7 mi), which is higher than
Earth's 6 kilometres (3.7 mi), because the surface gravity of
[115]
Mars is only about 38% of Earth's.
● The atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96% carbon
dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen along with traces
[2][116][110]
of oxygen and water. The atmosphere is quite
dusty, containing particulates about 1.5 μm in diameter
which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the
[117]
surface. It may take on a pink hue due to iron oxide
[21]
particles suspended in it. The concentration of methane in
the Martian atmosphere fluctuates from about 0.24 ppb
during the northern winter to about 0.65 ppb during the
[118]
summer. Estimates of its lifetime range from 0.6 to 4
[119][120]
years, so its presence indicates that an active source
of the gas must be present. Methane could be produced by
 non-biological process such as serpentinization involving
water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is
[121] [122]
known to be common on Mars, or by Martian life.

●
● Escaping atmosphere on Mars (carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen) by
[123]
MAVEN in UV
● Compared to Earth, its higher concentration of atmospheric
CO2 and lower surface pressure may be why sound is
attenuated more on Mars, where natural sources are rare
apart from the wind. Using acoustic recordings collected by
the Perseverance rover, researchers concluded that the
speed of sound there is approximately 240 m/s for
[124]
frequencies below 240 Hz, and 250 m/s for those above.
[125]
[126][127][128]
● Auroras have been detected on Mars. Because
Mars lacks a global magnetic field, the types and distribution
[129]
of auroras there differ from those on Earth; rather than
being mostly restricted to polar regions as is the case on
[130]
Earth, a Martian aurora can encompass the planet. In
September 2017, NASA reported radiation levels on the
surface of the planet Mars were temporarily doubled, and
were associated with an aurora 25 times brighter than any
observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, solar
[130][131]
storm in the middle of the month.
● Climate
● Main article: Climate of Mars
 ●
● Mars without (on left) and with a global dust storm in July 2001 (on
right), as seen by the Hubble Space Telescope
● Of all the planets in the Solar System, the seasons of
Mars are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts
of the two planets' rotational axes. The lengths of the
Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth's
because Mars's greater distance from the Sun leads
to the Martian year being about two Earth years long.
Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of
about −110 °C (−166 °F) to highs of up to 35 °C (95
[15]
°F) in equatorial summer. The wide range in
temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot
store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure (about
1% that of the atmosphere of Earth), and the low thermal
[132]
inertia of Martian soil. The planet is 1.52 times as far
from the Sun as Earth, resulting in just 43% of the amount of
[133][134]
sunlight.
● If Mars had an Earth-like orbit, its seasons would be similar
to Earth's because its axial tilt is similar to Earth's. The
comparatively large eccentricity of the Martian orbit has a
significant effect. Mars is near perihelion when it is summer
in the Southern Hemisphere and winter in the north, and
near aphelion when it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere
and summer in the north. As a result, the seasons in the
Southern Hemisphere are more extreme and the seasons in
the northern are milder than would otherwise be the case.
The summer temperatures in the south can be warmer than
 the equivalent summer temperatures in the north by up to 30
[135]
°C (54 °F).
● Mars has the largest dust storms in the Solar System,
reaching speeds of over 160 km/h (100 mph). These can
vary from a storm over a small area, to gigantic storms that
cover the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is
closest to the Sun, and have been shown to increase global
[136]
temperature.
● Hydrology
● Main article: Water on Mars

●
● The ice-filled Korolev crater near Mars's north pole is estimated to
3
hold about 2,200 km (530 cu mi), comparable in volume to the Great
Bear Lake.
● Water in its liquid form cannot exist on the surface of Mars
due to low atmospheric pressure, which is less than 1% that
[137]
of Earth, except at the lowest of elevations for short
[42][138]
periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be made
[139][140]
largely of water. The volume of water ice in the south
polar ice cap, if melted, would be enough to cover the entire
[141]
surface of the planet with a depth of 11 metres (36 ft).
Large quantities of ice are thought to be trapped within the
thick cryosphere of Mars. Radar data from Mars Express
 and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) show large
[142][143]
quantities of ice at both poles, and at middle
[144]
latitudes. The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice
[145]
in shallow Martian soil on 31 July 2008.
● Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water
has existed on the planet's surface. Huge linear swathes of
scoured ground, known as outflow channels, cut across the
surface in about 25 places. These are thought to be a record
of erosion caused by the catastrophic release of water from
subsurface aquifers, though some of these structures have
been hypothesized to result from the action of glaciers or
[146][147]
lava. One of the larger examples, Ma'adim Vallis, is
700 kilometres (430 mi) long, much greater than the Grand
Canyon, with a width of 20 kilometres (12 mi) and a depth of
2 kilometres (1.2 mi) in places. It is thought to have been
[148]
carved by flowing water early in Mars's history. The
youngest of these channels is thought to have formed only a
[149]
few million years ago.
● Elsewhere, particularly on the oldest areas of the Martian
surface, fine
●