25-1 INTRODUCTION

In astronomical ter1s, a satcllite is a cclestial body that orbils around a plane

anet
satellitc of Earth). In acrospace tems, however, a salciile is a spacc vchicle laune (c.g the
orbits Earth or another celestial body. Communications sateines are man-nade o hed by hu
Earth. providing a multitude of communication luncfions toa wide varicty of.
satel itehumans
s. inhatcludioratnht
military. governmental. private,
In essence, a
and commercial subscribers.
comnmunicatios salellie is a microwave repcalcr in the st
OnSUmer s
dverse combination of onc or more of the following: receiver, transmitter, amnli. that Coni
lifier, sts of a
ler, onboard computer. multiplexer, demultiplexer, antenna, waveguide, and about.
communications circuit ever developed. A satellite radio repcater is called a tran regenerat
Oher ele"on i
satelite may have many. A satellite system consists or of
ofone
more satellite
space
based station to control the operation of the system, and a user network of earth stat: les, whiich a
a grournd
earth stations
the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communication that
the satellite system.
ons traffic thro provides
Transmissions to and from satellites are categorized as either bus or payload, Tha t hrough
control mechanisms that support the payload operation. The payload is the actual
user
conveyed through the system. Although in recent years new data services and televisionbormai
are more and more in demand, the transmission of convenional speech telephone sionat dcastina
or digital form) is still the bulk of satellite payloads.
In the early 1960s, AT&T released studies indicating that a few powerful satellites of . .
analog
design could handle more telephone traffic than the entire existing AT&T long-distanee anced
tions network. The cost of these satellites was estimated to be only a fraction of the cost eunica
terrestrial microwave or underground cable facilities. Unfortunately, because AT&T Was
government regulations prevented them from developing the satellite systems, smaller and mud
lucrative companies were left to develop the satellite systems, and Al&T continued
for several
years investing billions of dollars each year in conventional terrestrial microwave and more
systems. Because of this, early developments in satellite technology were slow in coming
metal cable

25-2 HISTORY OF SATELLITES

The simplest type of
satelliteis a passive refector which 1s a device that simply "bounces" signal
from one place to another. A passive satelite reflects signals back to
Earth, as there are no pain
devices on board to amplify or modify the signals.
The moon is a natural satellite of
by reflection of sunlight and having a slightly elliptical orbit. Consequently, the moonEarth, Visible
became the
first passive satellite in 1954, when the U.S. Navy successfully transmitted the first message over this
Earth-to-moon-to-Earth communications system. In 1956, a relay service was established
between
Washington, D.C. and Hawaii and, until 1962, offered reliable long-distance radio communications
service limited only by the availability of the moon. Over time, however, the moon
inconvenient and unreliable communications satellite, as it is above the horizon
proved to be an
only half the time
and its position relative to Earth is
constantly changing.
An obvious advantage of passive satellites is that
they do not require sophisticated electronic
equipment on board, although they are not necessarily void of power. Some passive satellites require
radio beacon transmitters for tracking and
ranging purposes. A beacon is a continuously transmit-
ted unmodulated carrier that an earth station can lock on to and use to
determine the exact location
of a satellite so the earth station can
align antennas. Another disadvantage of passive satellites is
its
their inefficient use of transmitted power. For
example, as little as 1 part in every 10 of an earth
station's transmitted power is actually returned to earth station
receiving antennas.
In1957,Russia launched Sputnik I, the first active earth satellite. An active
satellite iscapabe
of receiving, amplitying, reshaping, regenerating, and retransmitting information. Sputnik I transmue
ted telemetry information for 21
days. Later in the same year, the United States launched Explorer
which transmitted telemetry information for
nearly five months.
Electronic Communications Systems
 1958, NASA
A launched Score, a 150-pound conical shaped satellite With an ombrvrd tape
1950haped.

In core rebroadcast President Eisenhower's

r's 1958 Christmas message S ore the fir
artificial
s a t e l l i t eu s e d
relaying terrestrial communications. Score was a delayed repeater sateliite
Testrial

| satelemissions fro
from earth stations, stored them on magnetic tape, an«l then rehroac ast
transmissions

r e c e i v e d
stations farther along in its orbit.
farther
it to ground
as
la
n te1
r 960, NASA NASA in conjunction wilh Bell Telephone Laboratories and the let Propulsion
rhem

hed Echo, a
L a b o r a t o r yl a u n c h e
100-foot-dia
0-foot-diameter plastie
balloon with an aluminum coating. Echo
pa
edradio signals it received irom large carth station antennas. Echo was simple and reli-
lyreflectedr

a b l e b u t
ired extremely high-power transmitters at the earth stations. The first transatlantic
r e q u i r e d

Ising a satellite was accomplished using Echo. Also in 1960, the Department of Defense
transmissi
launched Courier, which was the first transponder-type satellite. Courier transmitted 3 W of power
17 days.
lasted
only
and n 1 9 6 2 ,A T & T launched 1elstarI, the tirst activesatellitetosimultaneously receive and trans-
anals. The electroicequipment in Telstarl was damaged by radiation from the newly
m i tr a d i os i g n a l s .
Van Alle
discovered Van Allen belts and, conseguently,lasted for only a few weeks. Telstar II was success-
3 and was electronically identical to TelstarI xcept more radiation resistant.
in 1963.
Jaunched
fully used for phone,
telepho television, facsimile, and data transmissions and accomplished the
elstar II
was

first s u c c e s s f u l
transatlantic deo transmission.
om. launched in February 1963, was the first attempt to place a geosynchronous satel-
Il and
nto orbit. Unfortunately, Syncom was lost during orbit injection; however, Syncom
I
lite launched in February 1963 and August 1964, respectively. The Syncom
coml were successtully satellites
eatellite broadeast the 1964
was used to Games from The
Olympic Tokyo. Syncom
demonstrated the feasibility geosynchronous
of using satellites.
projects, a number of nations and private corporations have successfully
Since the Syncom
are currently being used to provide national as well as regional
and interna-
launched satellites that communications systems
communications. Today, there are several hundred satellite
tional global fixed
corner of the world. These companies provide worldwide,
operating in virtually every network televi-
data cireuits; point-to-point television broadcasting;
common-carrier telephone and and private
music broadcasting mobile telephone service; navigation service;
sion distribution; and applications.
networks for large corporations, government agencies, military
communications It
satellite. was

Intelsat I (called Early Bird) was the first commercial telecommunications

from Cape Kennedy in 1965 and used two transponders and a 25-MHz band-width to
launched
simultaneously carry one television signal and 480 voice
channels. Intelsat stands for International1
Intelsat is a network that
commercial global satellite
Telecommunications Satellite Organization.
Nations. Intelsat is a consortium of over 120 nations with
manifested in 1964 from within the United
satellite communications using four basic
the commitment to provide worldwide, nondiscriminatory
switched telephony, broadcasting, private-line/business
service categories: international public Intelsat launched a
communications. Between 1966 and 1987,
networks, and domestic/regional
Intelsat VI has a capacity of 80,000 voice
VI.
series of satellites designated Intelsat I1, II, IV V and
include the 500, 600, 700, and 800 series space
channels. Intelsat's most recent satellite launches
vehicles.
domestic satelites (Domsats) in 1966 and
The former Soviet Union launched the first set of
them Molniya, meaning "1lightning." Domsats are
satellites that are owned, operated, and used
led commercial satellite designated Anik,
which
aSingle country. In 1972, Canada launched its first in 1974,
their first Westar satellite
Western Union launched
nuit word meaning "little brother." first Satcon1 (Satelite
Communications)
dio Corporation of America (RCA) launched its
owned company called Conmunications
1975. In the United States today, a publicly
S n of U.S. satellites and also sets
and operation
teCorporation (Comsat) regulates the use
satellite, its utilities are generally made
own a
lnough a government may
company or
availaki them. The United States currently
utilizes the largest share of
vail o anyone willing to pay for is second with 13%, followed by France
Worldwide satellite time (24%); Great Britain
with 6%.

ommunicationsons 995
 (25-3) KEPLER'S LAws
A satcllite remains in orbit becausc the centrifugal force caused by its rotation ar
counterbalanced by Earth's gravitational pull. In the carly secventeenth century while around ah
the laws of planctary motion ([Link]., motion of planets and their heavenly bodies c a l a i
astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) discovered the laws that
German
The laws of planctary motion descritbe the shape of the orbit, the velocities of
govern
govern satelt
satellite moons).
of the
the nl motion
distance a planet is with respect to the sun. Kepler's laws may be simply stated as (1 planet,
and the
move in ellipses with the sun at one focus. (2) the line joining the sun and a planet sWecplanets the
areas in equal intervals of time, and (3) the square of the time of revolution of a planer a
the cube of its mean distance from the sun gives a number that is the same for allplanridedb
laws can be applied to any two bodies in space that interact through gravitation. The laepler
The
twobodies is called the primary, and the smaller is called the secondary or satellite of t larger
Kepler's first law states that a satellite will orbit a primary body (like Earth)folloui
tical path. An ellipse has two focal points (foci) as shown in Figure 25-la (F, and F), and th
of mass (called the
barycenter) of a two-body system is always centered on one of the foci. Recenter
the mass of Earth is
substantially greater than that of the satellite, the center of mass will alwate
cide with the center of Earth. The
geometric properties of the ellipse are normally referenced
of the foci which is to one
logically selected to be the one at the center of Earth.
For the semimajor axis (a) and the semiminor axis
(B) shown in igure 25-1a, the eccentrici
(abnormality) of the ellipse can be defined as

-ya-
(25-1)
whereiseecentricity.
e

Kepler's second law, enunciated with the first law in 1609, 1s known as the law ofareas.
second law states that for equal intervals of time a satellite will Kepler's
sweep out equal areas in the orbital
plane, focused at the barycenter. As shown in Figure 25-1b, for a satellite
D, meters in 1 second, areas and will be traveling distances D, and
Aj Az equal. Because of the equal area law, distance D, must
be greater than distance D2, and, therefore,
velocity V, must be greater than velocity V2. The velocitv
will be greatest at the point of
be least at the farthest
closest approach to Earth (known as the perigee), and the velocity will
point from Earth (known as the apogee). Kepler's second law is illustrated in
Figure 25-tb.
Kepler's third law, announced in 1619, is sonmetimes known as the harmonic law. The third law
states that the square of the
periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance
between the primary and the satellite. This mean distance is equal to the
Kepler's third law can be stated mathematically as semimajor axis; thus,
Ap3
(25-2)
where A =
constant (unitless)
a=semimajor axis (kilometers)
P mean solar earth days
and P is the ratio of the time of one sidereal
day (t, =
23 hours and 56 minutes) to the time of one
revolution of Earth on its own axis (t, 24
hours).
=

thus, P=
.
1436 minutes
1440 minutes
0.9972

996 Electronic Communications Systems

 Center aSemiminor
axis
of ellipse
F F
Major
axis

Semiminor
axis

-
Semimajor axis Semimajor axis
(a)

Orbit
Earth

D Satellite
V
(b)
FIGURE 25-1 [a] Focal points F and Fe,
b] Kepler's second law semimajor axis a, and semiminor axis b of an
ellipse

Rearranging Equation 25-2 and solving the constant A for

earth yields
A =42241.0979
Eauations 25-1 and 25-2 apply for the ideal case
when a satellite is
ical body with no outside forces. In orbiting around a perfectly spher
actuality, Earth's equatorial bulge
result in deviations in the satellite's ideal and external
motion. Fortunately, disturbing forces
however, the major deviations can be
calculated and compensated for. Satellites
drag and by Earth's magnetic field. For more orbiting close to Earth will be affected by
forces are from the distant satellites,
however, the primary
atmospheric
gravitational fields of the sun and moon. disturbing

ySATELLITE ORBITS
IOSt of the satellites mentioned thus far are called
orbital satellites, which are
Onsynchronous satellites rotate around Earth in an nonsynchronous.
Figure Z-2a and b. In a circular elliptical or circular pattern as shown in
the orbit, the speed or rotation isconstant; however, in
depends on the height the satellite is above elliptical orbits
Earth. The speed of the satellite is
t is close to Earth than greater when
when it is farther
l satellite is orbiting in the sameaway.
direction as Earth's rotation (counterclockwise) and at an
If the so y greater than that of Earth (o, > 0), the orbit is called aprograde or posigrade orbit.
angui e Is orbiting in the oppOsite direction as Earth's rotation or in the same direction with an
angular velocity less than that of
chronous satellite Earth (0, < o), the orbit is called retrograde orbit. Most nonsyn-
a
e v o l v e around Earth in
prograde orbit. Therefore, the position ofsatellites in
a

Communications 997
 Direction of rotation
CCw
CW

CCW rotation

(M) Earth
North
Pole

Satellite (os)

(a)
Direction of rotation
CCW
CW
CCW rotation

Earth

North
Pole

Satellite
(s (b)
FIGURE 25-2 Satellite orbits: [a] circular: [b] elliptical

nonsynchronous orbits is continuously changing in respect to a fixed position on Earth. Consequentv

nonsynchronous satellites have to be used when available, which may be as little as 15 minutes per
orbit. Another disadvantage of orbital satellites is the need for complicated and expensive tracking
equipment at the earth stations so they can locate the satellite as it comes into view on each orbit and
then lock its antenna onto the satellite and track it as it passes overhead. A major advantage of orbital
satellites, however, is that propulsion rockets are not required on board the satellites to keep them in
their respective orbits.

254-1 Satellite Elevation Categories

Satellites are generally classified as having either a low earth orbit (LEO), medium earth orbit (MEO),
or geosynchronous eath orbit (GEO). Most LEO satellites operate in the 1.0-GHz to Z.5-GHz2
frequency range. Motorola's satellite-based mobile-telephone system, Iridium, is a LEO system
utilizing a 66-satellite constellation orbiting approximately 480 miles above Earth's surface. The main
advantage of LEO satellites is that the path loss between earth stations and space vehicles is mucu
lower than for satellites revolving in medium-or high-altitude orbits. Less path loss equates to 10We

transmit powers, smaller antennas, and less weight.

MEO satellites operate in the 1.2-GHz to 1.66-GHz frequency band and orbit bewe

v6000 miles and pos

12,000 miles above Earth. The Department of Defense's satellite-based globaland
h of 21 working satellites
sa

tioning system, NAVSTAR, is a MEO system with a constellation

i s
orbiting apprOximately 9500 miles above Earth.
s i spares
Geosynchronous satellites are high-altitude earth-orbit satellites operating prima ot
2-GHz to 18-GHz frequency spectrum with orbits 22,300 miles above Earth's Surt

998 Electronic Communications Systems

 Semi-major
axis

Semi- Minor SV
minor
axis
axis

P e r i g e e
Earth
Apogee

Major
axis

ellite orbital terr

FIGURE 2 5 - 3 Satell

munications ites
satellite are in geosynchronous orbit.
commercial
Geosynchronous or
catelites are those that orbit in a cireular pattern with an angular velocity equal to that
e o s t a t i o n a r ys a t e l l i t e s

Seos
nary satellites have an orbital time of approximately 24 hours, the same as Earth;
o fE a r t h . G e o s t a

thus, lites appear to be stationary, as they remain in a fixed position in respect

osynchronous satellit
on Earth.
point
to a
given high-elevation, nonsynchronous circular orbits between 19,000 miles and
Satellites in high
e s above Earth are said tobe in near-synchronous orbit. When the near-synchronous orbit
tl lower than 22,300 miles above Earth, the satellite's orbital time is lower than Earth's ota-
is s e
tional d Therefore,
period. Ther the satellite is moving slowly around Earth in a west-to-east direction. This
tionnear-synchronous orbit is called subsynchronous. If the orbit is higher than 22,300 miles
satellite's orbital| time is longer than Earth's rotational period, and the satellite will
bove
Earth, the

pear to
have a reverse (retrograde) motion from east to west.
Orbital Patterns
25-4-2 Satellite
Before examining satellite orbital paths, a basic understanding of some terms used to describe orbits
refer to Figure 25-3:
is necessary. For the following definitions,

The point in an orbit that is located farthest from Earth

Apogee.
Perigee. The point in an orbit that is located closest to Earth
Major axis. The line joining the perigee and apogee through the center of Earth; sometimes
called line of apsides
Minor axis. The line perpendicular to the major axis and halfway between the perigee and
apogee (Half the distance of the minor axis is called the semiminor axis.)

Although there is an infinite number of orbital paths, only three are useful for communications
tes. igure 25-4 shows three paths that a satellite can follow as it rotates around Earth: inclined
o r i a , or polar. All satellites rotate around Earth in an orbit that forms a plane that passes
Ough the center of
gravity of Earth called the geocenter
die e d orbits are virtually all orbits except those that travel directly above the equator or
Over the North and South Poles. Figure 25-5a shows the angle of inclination of a satellite
fhe angle of inclination is the angle between the Earth's equatorial plane and the orbital plane
travelC measured counterclockwise at the point in the orbit where it crosses the equatorial plane
The noio south to north. This point is called the ascending node and is shown in Figure 25-Sb.
a polar or inclined orbit crosses the equatorial plane traveling from north to south

eCommunications 999
 Polar

Inclined

geocenter

Equatorial

Equator

FIGURE 254 Satellite orbital patterns

Polar

North

Earth's direction
of rotation Angle of inclination Lineof
nodes

Equatorial
plane
(0) Equator

Descending
node

Ascending
South
node
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 25-5 la] Angle of inclination; [b] ascending node, descending node, and line of nodes

ough he
is called the descending node, and the line joining the ascending and descending nodes
center of Earth is called the line of nodes. Angles of inclination vary between 0° and
180°. Toprov
second
law

coverage to regions of high latitudes, inclined orbits are generally elliptical. Kepier
shows that the angular velocity of the satellite is slowest at its apogee. Therefore, tnes d bove be
visible for a longer period oftime to the higher latitude regions if the apogee s P

high-latitude region.

1000 Electronic Communications Systems

 eguatorial
orbit iswhen the satc\lite
An With an uatorial orbi.
cquatorial rotates in an
rcular
path. orbit,
hence, nono line the
line aof anglegle ofof inc
orbnt dctiy
ditectty ate
sh.

nodles. All inclination is (f. And the swten

nodes ana, nence,
inanding
descend

there
satcllite rotates in geosynchronron atellites utrin
xe
orbits when the
the sat.

Apolar orbit
js a
re m
orbit perpendicar to the
cquatorial path that takes it
rial plane. Polar over the
nasses ovcr and very
close to orbiting satellites foln
to Earth and passes over and very elo orbiting Norh nd irnth 9
nolar both folikenw ies

that ion sateliteinsingle orbit is nearly

att ofaered the Nonh and Scnth i side
NIihe
a
o
litein a [Link] to
polar orbit. Satelites note that 166Poles of ang'e of
a.
tacec e Ea satellite in
Farth is rotating
while
The
orbit
longitudinal
on its
axis polar in
orthits rotate Farhs ar
in a pattern is a diagonal|line that forms a in a
'ssradiation
latitudinal arcnond Farth
ite t le As a result, every location spiral around the rotaticn
bles a bart

orbit twice
each day,
on Earth
lies within surface of
the radiation Earh that resem
Consequently.
he

in a polar is not a perfect

nerfect sphere, as it patten of a satellite
Earth

in Fcuador called bulges at the

equator. In fact, until the early
20,700-foot mountai
Volcan
point on
the p However, because of Chimborazo was
eroneously thought be the 1800s. a

highest m the center of the Earth. Anequatornal bulge. Volcan to

thefarthest Chimborazo prved

important effect of the Earth's to be

causing
tical orbits to rotate in a manner that causes the apogee and equatonial bulge is
called rotation of the line of
This phenomena is called perigee to move
around the
of the line of apsides is zero. apsides; however, for an angle of inclination
Earth
otation ofth
the rotation
of63.4°, Thus, satelites
required to have an apogee over
cation are launched into orbit with an of angle inclination of 63.4°. which is
to as
the 63° slot. referred
o f the more interesting orbital satellite systems
currently in use is the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS).Molniya system of satellites, which
is shown in
Figure 25-6. The CIS is
the f ormer Soviet Union. olniya can also be spelled Molnya and Molnia,
which means "lightning
in Russian (in lloquial Russian, Molniya means "news flash"). Molniya
satellites are used for
pOvernment communications,telephone,television, and video.
The Molniya series of satellites use highly inclined elliptical orbits to provide service to the
more northerly regions where antennas would have to be aimed too close to the horizon to detect
signals from geostationary space vehicles rotating in an equatorial orbit. Molniya satellites have anm
apogee at about 40,000 km and a perigeeat about 400km. The apogee is reached while over the
Northern Hemisphere and the perigee while over the Southem Hemisphere. The size of he ellipse was
chosen to make its period exactly one-half a sidereal day One sidereal day is the time it tukes Earth
to rotate back to the same constelation. The sidereal day for Earth is 23 hours and S6 minutes, slghntly

Highly
elliptical
orbit

Apogee
40,000 km

Earth Elliptical
orbit

Perigee
1000 km

FIGURE 25-6 Soviet Molniy satelite orbit

1001
lte Co
mmunications
 nd its
less than the time required for Earth to makc onc complcte rotation around its owna
own
A sidereal day is somctimes called the period or sidereal period. axis2A houe
Because of its unique orbital pattern, the Molniya satellite is synchronous with ha
Earth. During a satelite's 12-hour orbit, it spends about 11 hours over thc Northern . t i n
Three or more space vehicles follow each other in this orbit and pass off communicatiphere
otherso that continuous communications is possible while minimal carth station antenno each
necessary. Satellites with orbital patterns like Molniya are sometimes classified as haviCking is
elliptical orbit (HEO). ighly
25-5 GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITES
As stated, geosynchronous satellites orbit Earth above thecquator with the sameangular
Earth. Hence, geosynchronous (sometimes called stationary or geostationary) satelites ular velocityas
remain in a fixed location above one spot on Earth's surface. Since a geosynchronoear ap to
geosynchronous satel ite
appears to remain in a fixed location, no special antenna tracking equipment is necessars
station antennas are simply pointed at the satellite. high-altitude
Asingle geosynchronousea
can provide reliable communications to approximately 40% oftheearth'ssurface. ite
Satellites remain in orbit as a result of a balance between centrifugal andgravitational fo.
If a satellite is traveling at too high a velocity, its centrifugal force will overcome Earth'sor
gravita-
tionalpull, and the satellite will break out of orbit and escape into space. At lower velocities
satellite's centrifugal force is insufficient, and gravity tends to pull the vehicle the
toward Earth
Obviously, there is a delicate balance between acceleration, speed, and distance that will exactlu
balance the effects of centrifugal and gravitational forces.
The closer to Earth a satellite rotates, the greater the gravitational pull and the
greater the
velocity required to keep it from being pulled to Earth. Low-altitude satellites orbiting 100 miles
above Eath travel at approximately 17,500 mph. At this speed, it takes
rotate around Earth. Consequently, the time that a satellite is in line of
approximately 1.5 hours to
sight of a particular earth
station is 0.25 hour or less per orbit. Medium-altitude Earth-orbit satellites have a
rotation period
of between 5 and 12 hours and remain in line of sight of a particular earth station for
between 2 and
4 hours per orbit. High-altitude earth-orbit satellites in
geosynchronous orbits travel at approxi-
mately 6840 mph and complete one revolution of Earth in approximately 24 hours.
Geosynchronous orbits are circular; therefore, the speed of rotation is constant throughout the
orbit. There is only one geosynchronous earth orbit; however, it is occupied by a large number of
satellites. In fact, the geosynchronous orbit is the most widely used earth orbit for the obvious reason
that satellites in a geosynchronous orbit remain in a fixed position relative to Earth and, therefore,
donot have to be tracked by earth station
antennas.
Tdeallygeosynchronous satellites should remain stationary above a chosen location over the
equator in an equatorial orbit; however, the sunand themoon exert gravitationalforces, solar winds
sweep past Earth, and Earth is not perfectly spherical. Therefore, these unbalanced forces cause ge0
synchronous satellites to drift slowly away from their assigned locations in afigure-eight excursion
with a 24-hour period that follows a wandering path slightly, above and
below
the equatorial plane.
In essence, it occurrsin aspecialtypeof inclined orbit sometimescalled astationaryinclined orbit
Ground controllers must periodically adjust satellite positions to counteract these forces. If not, the
excursion above and below the equator would build up at a rate of between 0.6° and 0.9° per year.
In addition, geosynchronous satellites in an elliptical orbit also rift in an east or west direction i
viéwed from Earth. The process of maneuvering a satellite within a-preassigned window 1s calie
/station keeping.
There are several requirements for satellites in geostationary orbits. The first and most obvi
Ous
is that geosymchronousabove
satellites must have a angle of inclination (ie., the satellite vehicle
0°
must be orbiting directly Earth's equatorial plane). The satellite must also be orbiting
same direction as Earth's rotation (eastward-toward the morning sun) with the same angular o rota-

tional) velocity-one revolution per day.

1002 Electronic Communications Systems

 The
mimajor axis off aa geosynchronous earth orbit is the distance from
chronous orbitit to the
the center sateiite revokving
i n t h e g e o s y n c h

t of Earth (i.c., the radius of the orbit a

satellite vehicle). Using Kepler's measored from Earth

geocenter
2241.0979 and P = 0.9972, the semimajor axis third
a is law as stated in
Equation 25-2 with
A
a =Ap3
= (42241.0979)(0.9972)

= 42,164 km

(25-3)
1-orbit satellites revolve around Earth in a
eosynchronousearth-
Hence,
circular patte directly above
42,164 km from the center of Earth. Because Earth's equatornal
the eu
ator«
h height above mean sea level (h) of a satellite in a radius is approximately
6378km, geosynchronous orbit around Earth 1s
h 42,164
km 6378 km -

= 35,786 km

or approximately 22,300 miles above Earth's surface,

25-5-1 Geosynchronous Satelite Orbital Velocity
The circumference (C) of a geosynchronous orbit is

C 27t(42,164 km)
= 264,790 km

Therefore, the velocity (v) of a geosynchronous satellite is

264,790 km
24 hr
= 11,033km/hr

y = 6840 mph
or

Satelites
25-5-2 Round-Trip Time Delay of Geosynchronous
between a satellite and an earth station located directly below it is
The round-trip propagation delay

2(35,768 km)
3X10 km/s
= 238 ms

satellite equipment, it takes more than a

the earth station and
ncluding the time delay within travel from an earth station to
to
a satellite and back
wave
second for electromagnetic stations
arter of a an
Earth directly below the satellite. For earth
at a point on
nen the earth station is located is even more substantial and
can be signiti
the propagation delay
Oeated at more distant locations, or data
transmisSiOns.
cant with two-way telephone conversations

25-5-3 Clarke Orbit referred to as the Clarke orbit

sometimes
or Clarke belt, atter Arthur
nchronous earth orbit is
geos
in 1945 and proposed its Use for
communications satellites.
first suggested its existence who wrote several
books including
who science fiction author
scientist, and a for geosynchronous
20 as an engineer, a meets the concise
set ot specifications
2001:
** A
pace Odyssey. The Clarke orbit

atelite Communicatuon 1003

ns
 satelite orbits. (1) he wated directly above the equator. (2)travel
in the same
me
rotation at 6840 mph. (3) have an altitude of 22,30) miles ahve Earth, and (4) cCtion a
as direction
tion in 24 hours. As shown in Figure 25-7, threesatellites in Clarke orbi
fde
rhits separated plete one rEart
by
the polar
can provide communications over the entire glohe except regions
Clatk1nkng
An international agreement initially mandated that all satellites placed in the
be separated byat least 1833 miles. This stipulation equates to an angular
which limits the number of satellite vehicles in a geosynchronous earth orbit
separatiKeorh e it my
to lese
however, international agreements allow satellites to be placed much coser to n Io
shows the locations of several satellites in geosynchronous orhit around
Farth Eether. Figre 2

Satellite 3
90

120 120

1800 Earth
0

1200

Satelite 2
210° Satellite
270
330
FIGURE 25-7 Three
geosynchronous satellites in Clarke orbits

SATCOM V (143°)

SATCOM I (135°)
GALAXY (74°)

WESTAR II
(91)
COMSTAR COMSTAR I
(128°) (95)
WESTAR I (123.5°) TELESTAR (96°)
WESTAR IV (98.5°)
WESTAR V (119.5)
ANIK WESTARI
SATCOM ANIK III ANIK II (99)
(119) (104)
(114) (109°)
FIBURE 25-8 Satellites in
geosynchronous earth orbitss
1004 Electronic Communications Systtems
 and
25-5-4
headvantages
Advantages and
Disadvantages of Geosynchr onous
f geosynchronous satellites ate as
dcllitcs Temain
chronous satellites
follows Satallitn
I. Geosynchr

almost
sive tracking
Conscquently expensive t
equipment stationary in
ntcllitcs arc available to all rexquiredreqpectthe earthgvven earh 1irn
is not to a
2.

evnchroadow
Gcosynchrono

the time. The of satellitc earth

includes all the statioma within theie
a
at
aatin
it andlie within the radiation earth thodrre 10f
path
to
switch pattern ofof the sa stations that
switch from oneC the satelite's antennas have
is no
ta
need to one
a

line ngh
of

3.
There

head.
Consequently, there are
are no
no t geosynchronous satellite
50synchrone.
transmission to
another a (hey
effects of ppler shift are negligible. breaks due to orhit mer
4. The switching times
The
antages of geosynchronous satellites are as
follows
1. Geosynchror litesrequire sophisticated and heav
keep
them in a fixed orbit. heavy propulsion devices
2. High-altitue geosynchronou: ous satellites onboard to
introduce much
und-trip propagation de between two earth stations longer propagation
lite is between 500 ms and 600 ms. delays. The
through geosynchronous a

3. Geosynchronoi tellites require higher satel

transmit powers
ise of the longer distances and greater path losses. and more
sensitive receivers
High-precision
there.
spacemansnp 13
Tequired to place a
geosynchronous Satellite ;
to keep it

TENNALOOK ANGLEs

To optimize
nerformance of a satelite communications system, the
he perf
the

anearth (sometimes referred to as the boresight) must bedirection of maximum gain of

station antenna

lite
nsure that the earth station antenna is aligned, two angles must pointed
be
directly at the satel-
n lvation angle. Azimuth angle and elevation angle are determined: the azimuth
jointly referred to as
With geosynchronous Sateimtes, tne l0ok angles of earth station antennas need toantenna look
the

niy once, as the satellite wil remain in a given position permanently, be adjusted
for except occasional minor
variations.

The location of a satellite is generally specified in terms of latitude and

the way the location of a point on Earth is deseribed; however, because a longitude similar to
satelliteis orbiting many
miles above the Earth's surface, it has no latitude or longitude.
Therefore, its location is identified
hv a point on the surface of earth directly below the satellite. This
point is called the subsatellite point
(SSP), and for geosynchronous satellites the SSP must fall on the equator. Subsatellite points and
earth station locations are specified using standard latitude and
longitude coordinates. The standard
convention specifies angles of longitude between 0° and 180° either east or west of the
Greenwich
prime meridian. Latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere are angles between 0° and 90°N and latitudes
in the Southern
Hemisphere are angles between 0° and 90°S. Since geosynchronous satellites are
located directly above the equator,
they all have a 0° latitude. Hence, geosynchronous satelite
1ocations are normally given in degrees longitude east or west of the Greenwich meridian (for exam-
ple, 122°W or 78°E). Figure 25-9 shows the position of a hypothetical geosynchronous satellite vehi-
i t s respective subsatellite point (SSP), and an arbitrarily selected earth station (ES) all
auve to Earth's geocenter. The SSP for the satellite shown in the figure is 30°E longitude and O
aduudie. The earth station has a location of 30°W longitude and 20°N latitude.
25-6-1 Angle of Elevation
O elevation (sometimes called elevation angle) is the vertical angle formed betwecn the die
fo ravel of an electromagnetic wave radiated from an earth station antenna pointing aneetuy
e l t e and the horizontal plane. The smaller the angle of elevation, the greater the distance
te Cormmunications
1005
 50

40-

geocenter

ES

SSP /90/

50 /2030
430 20 10
-10

GSV
Greenwich
"prime
meridian
(0° longitude)
FIGURE 25-9 Geosynchronous satelite position, Subsatellite point, and Earth longitude and lattude
coordinate system

a propagated wave must pass through Earth's atmosphere. As with any wave propagated throueh
Earth's atmosphere, it suffers absorption and may also be severely contaminated by noise
Consequently, if the angle of elevation is too small and the distance the wave travels through Earti's
atmosphere is too long, the wave may deteriorate to the extent that it no longer provides acceptable
transmission quality. Generally, 5° is considered as the minimum acceptable angle of elevaion.
Figure 25-10 shows how the angle of elevation affects the signal strength of a propagated electro-
magnetic wave due to normal atmospheric absorption, absorption due to thick fog, and absorpion due
to heavy rainfall. It can be seen that the 14/12-GHz band shown in Figure 25-10b is more severely
affected than the 6/4-GHz band shown in Figure 25-10a because of the smaller wavelengthsassoc
ated with the higher frequencies. The figure also shows that at elevation angles less than 5°, the
amount of signal power lost increases significantly. Figure 25-10b illustrates angle of elevation of an
earth station antenna with respect to a horizontal plane.

25-6-2 Azimuth Angle

Azimuth is the horizontal angular distance from a reference direction, either the southem or northem
most point of the horizon. Azimuth angle is defined as the horizontal poínting angle of an euru
station antenna. For navigation purposes, azimuth angle is usually measured in a clockwise direcio
in from true north. However, for satellite earth stations in the Northern Hemisphere
degrees
satellite vehicles in geosynchronous orbits, azimuth e
south
alu
is
angle referencea
generally o south
ie 180). Figure 25-11a illustrates the azimuth angle referenced to due north (0) anddue
(180), and Figure 25-llc shows elevation angle and azimuth of an earth station anci
ative to

a satellite.

1006 Electronic Communications Systems

 Sateflite
Elevation angle Antenna
Horlzontal plane
North (0°)

Earth

West East
Azlmuth
referred to 180 Azimuth referred to 0%

South (180)
(b)
(a)

Setcom 1

Elevetion
angle 135 West
Equator
Earth station longitude
antenna
North
95.5 longitude
Azimuth Azimuth
South referred
180
to roferred to0
29.5° letitude

(c)

FIGURE 25-11 Azimuth and angle of elevation, "lookangles"

zero elevation angle is excessive. Therefore, an elevation angle of 5° is generally accepted as being
the minimum usable elevation angle. The limits of visibility depend in part on the antenna's eleva
tion and the earth station's longitude and latitude.

25-7 SATELLITE CLASSIFICATIONS, SPACING, AND FREGUENCY ALLOCATION

The two primary classifications for communications satellites are spinners and three-axis stabler
satellites. A spinner satellite uses the angular momentum of its spinning body to provIde rou
nd
yaw stabilization. With a three-axis stabilizer, the body remains fixed relative to Earth's surtt
while an internal subsystem provides roll and yaw stabilization. Figure 25-14 shows the two na

classifications of communications satellites.

en
Geosynchronou_ satellites must share a limited space and frequency spectrum witnin a
arc of a geostationary orbit. Each communications satellite is assigned a longitude intne nhethe
tionary arc approximately 22,300 miles above the equator. The position in the slot depends
communications frequency band used. Satellites operating at or near the same frequen
must be

1008 Electronic Communications Systems

 Table 25-1 Longtudinal Postiorn of Sever at arrert
VSynchronous Satellites Parkerl in an Equatorial Arr"
Satellite
Longitude ('W
Satcom
35
Satcom I
19
Satcom V
143
Satcom C 137
Satcom C3 131
Anik 1
104
Anik 2
109
Anik 3
114
Anik CI 109.25
Anik C2 109.15
Anik C3 114.9
Anik El 111.1
Anik E2 3
Westar I 99
Westar II 123.5
Westar I1I 91
Westar IV 5
Westar V 119.5
Mexico 116.5
Galaxy llI 93.5
Galaxry IV 99
Galaxy VV 125
Galgry VI 74
Nelstar 96
ComstarI 128
Comstar11 95
Comstar D2 76.6
Comstar D4 75.4
Ahtelsat 501 268.5
Intelsat 601 27.5
Intelsat 701 186

0° latitude.

sufficiently separatedin space to avoid interfering with each other (Figure 25-15). There is a realistic

limitto thenumber of satellitestructures that can be stationed (parked) within agiven area in space.
variables:
The required spatial separation is dependent on the following

and side lobe radiation of both the earth station and satellite antennas
Beamwidths
2RFcarrier
frequency
used
3Encoding or modulation technique
4. Acceptable limits of interference
3 Transmit carrier power

Generally, 1° to 4 of spatial separation is required, depending on the variables stated previously.

The most common carrier frequencies used for satellite communications are the 6/4-GHz and

4/12-GHz bands. The first number is the uplink (earth station-to-transponder) frequeney, and the
station) frequency. Different uplink and down-
Second number is the downlink (transponder-to-earth
nk trequencies are used toprevent ringaround from occurring (Chapter 24). The higher the carrier
yequency, the smaller the diameter required of an antenna for a given gain. Most domestic satellites
usethe6/4-GHzband. Unfortunately,this bandis alsoused extensivelyfor terrestrialnmierowavesYs-
interference from with'estab-
[Link] must be taken when designing a satellite network to avoid
or

lishedmicrowave inks.
Satellite Communications
1009
 B
(saa6ap) apnnej uoNejs yiue3
O
 ynchronous satellit Ilite. Power levels are
er levels
hemispherical beaams, and considerably lower with carth heams than
largc receive
zonal, o rh e m i
dishes arc with prt
data broadcasts.
necessary to adequately detect
avdio, and
vider
e6-8-4 R e u s e
requency band
allocated frequency band is
i
iled, additional capacity
uency spectrum. BnCreasing
an
When can he
the SIze ot
an antcnna (i.c., achieved hy reug of the
f the antennais also [Link], differcnt beams of increasing the antenna fre
zain). the
b e a m w i d

different geographica
t h

hical areas of Earth. This is the same

frequency
called
frequency reuse. Another method of can be directes
t o usc dualpolarization. Differentinformation signals
h e same band of frequencies can be transmitted to different freqpuercy
earth sta
receivers
simply by orienting their
tion
orthogonal manner (90° out of phase). Dual electromagnetic poiary/a
reorient or repolarize an polarization is less effective because Fanhs
tions in
has a tendency to
to reori
Reuse issimply another way to increasethe capacity of aelectromagnctic
a l m o s p h e r e

limited [Link] as it
passes through.

SYSTEM LINK MODELS

SATELLITE

Essentially,
a a sat Satellite system consists Of three basic
sections: an
uplink, a satellite transponder, and
a downlink.

25-9-1 Uplink Model

The nrimary component within the uplink Section of a satellite system is the earth station transmitter.
calearth station transmitter consists of an IF modulator, an IF-to-RF microwave
hnower amplifier (HPA), and some means of bandlimiting the final output spectrumup-converter.
(i.e., an out
nut bandpass filter). igure 25-19 shows the block diagram of a satellite earth station transmitter. The
IE modulator converts the input baseband signals to either an FM-, a PSK-, or a QAM-modulated
ntermediate frequency. The
up-converter (mixer and bandpass filter) converts the IF to an appropri
ate RF carrier frequency. The HPA provides adequate gain and output power to propagate the signal
to the satellite transponder. HPAs commonly used are klystons and traveling-wave tubes.

25-9-2 Transponder
A typical satellite transponder consists of an input bandlimiting device (BPF), an input low-noise
amplifier(LNA), a firequency translator a low-level power amplifier, and an output bandpasstfilter.
Figure 25-20 shows a simplified block diagram of a satellite transponder. Thistransponder is an
RF-10-RF repeater. Other transponder configurations are IF and baseband repeaters similartothose

To satellite
transponder

-
Up-converter

Baseband in Modulator BPF HPA

FDM or (FM, PSK, Mixer
PCM/TDM or QAM)

tRF
MW Generator
6 GHz or 14 GHz|

FIGURE 25-19 Sate!lite uplink model

atelite 1015
Lommunications
 Freuency transtator

Low noise
ampllifier Mixer
LNA

RF

MW shift
oscillator
GHz

From earth station

6 GHz or 14 GHz To other
transponders

FIGURE 25-20 Satellite transponder

From satellite
transponder

Down-converter
----E A--------.

Low-noise RF
amplifier Demodulator
BPF Mixer FM, PSK, Baseband 3
LNA orQAM) FOM or
PCMITDM
RF

MW generator
4 GHz or 12 GHz

FIGURE 25-21 Satelite downlink model

used in microwave repeaters. In Figure 25-20, the input BPF limits the total noise applied
inputof the LNA. (A common device used as an LNA is atunnel diode.) The output of theL
fed to a frequency translator (a shift oscillator and a BPF), which converts the high-band upun
quency to the low-band downlink frequency. The low-level power amplifier, which1s
traveling-wavetube, amplifies the RF signal for transmissionthrough the downlink to e

receivers. Each RF satellite channel requires a separate transponder.

25-9-3 Downlink Model
An earth station receiver includes and an RF-to-IF down
an input BPF an LNA, Again, theBPF
igure 25-21l shows a block diagram of a typical earth station receiver. Again such as a tune
input noise power to the LNA. The LNA is a highly sensitive, low-noise device
VICe,
i
u e amplifier or a parametric amplifier. The RF-to-IF down-converter i5a
combination that converts the received RF signal to an IF frequency
1016 Electronic Communications Systems