AC ROTATING MACHINES | —] jiobs_| rinciple of operatio Equivalent circuit, Speed Control - methods. Alternator: Working principte-Equation of induced EMF — n_ of three-phase induction motors — Construction —Types — Single phase Induction motors -Construction— farting Voltage regulation, Synchronous motors- working principle-starting methods — Torque equation. Induction machines, like other electrical rotating machines, are also capable of operating both as motors and generators. AS the nature of electrical energy is AC, Induction machines come under the category of AC machines. % Further, based on the type of AC used they can be classified as, i) 3-phase Induction Machines A ii) 1-phase Induction Machines M. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS * 3 5 3Phase Induction Motors convert 3-phase AC electrical energy into e same machine is capable of Mechanical energy. In the reverse mode, th | converting mechanical energy into 3-phse AC electrical energy. is the most extensively used 0% of total phase | * ofan electrical M ‘ ininduste Motors, 3-phse Induction Motor aetey co s nd in other applications. All over the worl about 8 Ming nesen from electrical to mechanical is carried out by 3- Wy \otors., je “Meiple of | | A ‘y Operation SUpply is gi the Stora given to the stator winding. Due to this, current flows through indine. Th; : Mao," Winding. This current is called stator current. It produces a rotating tic feta in the space between stator and rotor.\ Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering - ECE “The Magnetic field rotates at synchronized speed is given by, Ns = Lor P “Asa result of the rotating Magnetic field cutting the rotor conductors, an emg js induced in the rotor. If the rotor winding is shorted then the induced emf produces current. This current produces a rotor field. “> The. interaction of stator and rotor fields develops torque. Then the rotor rotates in the same direction as the rotating Magnetic field. When the rotor is at stands till the frequency of rotor emf is equal to the supply frequency, “As the Rotor speed picks up, the frequency of rotor emf and the Magnitude of Rotor emf decrease., The rotor tries to catch up with the rotating magnetic field. However the rotor cannot really catch up and rotate at the synchronized speed because if it does so, the relative speed would become zero and then there is no rotor induced emf, no current and hence no torque. % Therefore, the Rotor runs at a speed slightly less than the synchronized speed. In an Induction Motor, the rotor speed is always less than the syn. Speed. ‘Therefore this machine is called a synchrorious machine. The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called slip speed. : Slip speed = NAN “At no load, the difference between Synchronized speed and Rotor speed ® only about 1%. At loaded Condition, the Rotor slows di f induc in the Rotor and hence the roto s down. The ent T Current incre; 7 ue i ase. Dy r increases. ue to this, tord Under steady state conditions, the Clectromagnetic torque i 1 to the ood 7 r torque. At full load conditions the difference es . Seed and RO syn. speed is about 3to 5%. va: SP an ) ‘© The variation of speed from no load to fall Toad is very small. TM a} Induction Motor is also called constant speed Motor,AC Rotating, Machines 3.3 gy Variat 3] efficiency: cONSTRUCTION he ucti . The induction motor consists of two main parts. > Stator . ? > Rotor ion of speed i: i jon of speed is possible, but such variation is accompanied by loss of ade up of a number of stampings with alternate slot and tooth. insulated from each other. Each stamping is 0.4 to 0.5mm f stampings are stamped together to build the stator core. The .d in a casted or fabricated steel frame. The slot house or, The 36 winding is called stator he stator winding is stor The stator is mi Stampings are thick. Number © stator core iS then fitte: the 36 Winding just like the 3 $ alternat be connected either jn star or delta. T! winding. It may made for a fixed number of poles. Rotor There are two types of rotors used in induction motors, ‘Squirrel Cage Rotor Slip rings or wound Rotor. ; Suirrel Cage Rotor % This is made up of a cylil Conductors. The rotor conductors ar circuited at both ends by end rings: ‘ Circuited Rotor. The entire rotor resistance is very small. External om in the rotor circuit. ruction, Motors using such roto motors, indrical Jaminations core with slots to carry the Rotor e heavy bars of copper OF aluminium short Hence this rotor is also called @ Short | resistance cannot be Such motors are extremely rugged in rs are called squirrel cage induction tor winding. The rotor jmilar to the stat inding wound for as many nected bought out and co! Soy "bor Wound Rotor are si .d, disturbed wi phases are ieay “ee rotor windings Tuber of Y i ¢ star or delta connecte stip tne ae as the stator. The three jounted on the rotor shaft.(34) Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering - EC Variable external resistance can be connected in the rotor circuit, with the help of brushes and slip ring arrangements. By varying the external resistance in the rotor circuit, the motor speed and torque can be controlled. This motor is called Slip Ring Induction Motor or Wound Rotor Induction Motor. 3.1.3. TYPES “ The following are the two types of rotor construction used for 3-phase Induction Motors. i) Squirrel — cage rotor ' ii) Slip ring rotor Squirrel Cage Rotor + This type of rotor is used in almost 90% of induction motors as they are very simple, rugged and unbreakable in construction. The rotor core is assembled by stacking rotor stampings punched into the shapes as shown in figure 3.1. The thickness of the rotor stampings is larger than that of stator stampings as no appreciable iron loss is incurred in the rotor. Closed slots of either circular or rectangular shapes are provided in the stamping. “After the rotor core is stacked by the required number of laminations, the rotor shaft is inserted through the space available at the centre and firnily fitted by the key-way. “For machines of smaller and medium capacity, this assembly is then placed ® a moulding machine, which will force, under pressure, the molten aluminu through the slots to form rotor bars, end rings and cooling fan arrangeme?t ® an extension of end rings. This type of die-cast rotor is simple and Tus construction. the For machines of larger capacity, copper or brass bars are driven throug? 3 slots manually and the ends on both sides are then welded or silver sold together to form end rings. - “As shown in figure 3.1, the rotor bars are slightly inclined to the shaft ® oe ; .d while stacking the rotor stampings assembling " ‘skew’ provide ES slots provides the following two advantage core with skew of | to 2ating Machines Rotor Stamping Rotor slot Space for shaft Fig. 3.1: Cage Rotor Stamping i) Ithelps the Motor to run quietly by reducing magnetic hum. ii) Itreduces the locking tendency of the Rotor: Rotor Copper bar Fig. 3.2: Squirrel Cage Rotor ar assembly alone, leaving the core assembly, it squirrel inside, hence this type of rotor gets its the rotor circuit is a permanently closed circuit When one views the rotor bi looks like a cage to keep @ name squirrel cage rotor. Here Slip Ri lp Ring Rotor > The other name for this tyPe closed slots within which 3-phase winding, wound for the poles as that of stator windings is provided. same number of of rotor is would rotor. The . The rotor core h : as Semi-4 Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering - ECE 6 4+ The winding is normally connected in star and the resultant three terminals are connected to three slip-rings provided on one end of the shaft as shown jn Fig33 (a). R R LaF Slip Rings s e o curly ¢ $ ¥. haft Extemal Resistance Y B B Stator winding Rotor winding Fig. 3.3. (@) Slip-Ring Rotor Assembly _(b) External Resistance Connection Fig. 3.4. Slip-Ring Rotor The slip rings are made up of brass or phosphor — bronze. A brush holding mechanism is fitted on the end Cover provided on. the slip — ring side. The mechanism has a lever which can be tuned to two Positions — the start and run position, At the time of starting, the lever is to be turned to stait position. This will bring the brushes in contact with the slip-rings, * A 3:phase variable resistance can be added to the rotor circuit as shown in figure 3.3 (b), + After ‘the sunchiie has picked UP speed, the lever is to be tured to the ru" Position. This will cause the clip Tings to be short citcuited by means of @ collar which is pushed along the shaft, r Simultaneously, 1 above the slip-tings, thus reducing Ht wear in the brushes and eliminating mee brush friction loss. Slip-ring assemblY _ . Slip-ring may be fitted eithex between the rotor core and the bearings or on the shaft extension. Aiming at improved performance, the clearance between the inner surfiee the stator core and the outer surface of the Totor core called air gap, is ke?! i" small as possible.MC Rotating: Machines ay ¢ This necessitates the shaft to be made shorter and stiffer so that pot have any significant deflection, Even a smal deeton vaeuld me imegularities in the air-gap length which would lead to oe ee unbalanced magnetic pull. non of 4 Forsmall and medium capacity machines, a roller bearing may be wed atthe ball bearing at the non-driving end. Heavy rotor in large driving end and a acity machines are supported by journal bearings. cap: 414, EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT The Induction machine is represented by two concentric circles. The outer er circle represents the rotor. circle represents the stator while the inne 4 The symbol M represents the motor mode of operation. In case the machine is operated in the generator mode, the symbol G will be marked instead of M. We Not Fig. 3.5. Model Representation of 39 Induction Motor ites on a 3-phase AC supply. * The symbol 3~ denotes that the machine operat ‘i Further, the stator winding connection is indicated as either A or Y. ; The input to the motor is a 3 phase AC sup] frequency of fy with Hine Vollge Vy and line current I,,, The mechanical output power P, available in hat is represented by dotted lines with a shaft torque of T and speed * te : the stator winding is delta connected, then the per phase voltage 1S v,=V and 1 IL Per phase current is Ti : Yara star Lay Connected stator winding, per phase voltage 1s Vit Wry dh le Per phase current, I, = Ii iq —_ |ei.) Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering . ECE i i the Motor is i tive power input to % Electrical act cm SR RSA P, = 3 Vil, cos >, x 103 kW where 4, is the phase angle between V, and I, “The active power input can also be represented in terms of line Voltage and Vine current as V3 Vi.ticos $, W N3 Vu lycos & x 103 kW The equation for mechanical power output at shaft is _ 2nNrT Rey 60 2nNrT Fo Gx 1000 FW », = Py-W, Step 1 Represent the Windings by their Electrical Equivalent %& The actual Stator winding, series with the winding offered by a single stat which accounts for ‘the can be represented by an ideal stator winding Parameters-R, and jx, Ry represents the resist? ‘or winding and J. The leakage reactance pet pis leakage in flux that 0 cours in the stator winding. WOR { Fig. 3.6. Equivatent Circuit to ® Similarly, the rotor can be represented a fixed resistance R, Tepresenting the represent windings as bees nding in 8 'Y an ideal rotor winding Flot circuit resistance per PME variable leakage reactance jx, which accounts for the leakage #* 4cresting Machines F gccurs in the rotor hows this representation. sl 2 5 resent the Stator Core by its Electrical Equivalent ¢ ‘The stator core forms the path for the rotating magnetic flux $m set up by the magnetizing current I, lagging E, by 90°. The magnetizing component of the core is represented by a pure inductive reactance jx,, connected across the stator induced emf per phase E,. . ¢ Further, the iron loss in the stator core is accounted for by a current J,, in phase with el and is represented by a resistance R,, connected across E,, as shown in Figure 3.7. Fig. 3.7, Ec 'quivalent Circuit to Represent Stator Core ‘a + Convert th if jecuit i i i cea © actual rotating rotor cjreuit into an equivalent stationary rotor “uit. The : a — i Mable a Totating rotor circuit shown in Figure 3.7 consists of a Crit clem, Icy, f, = sfs, a variable emf, E, = SE,, source applied across the ents consist; . je Consisting of a fixed résistance, R, and a variable leakage 2 the i 5 . s “quation for rotor circuit current can be written as n [h| = JEL Se "then | [RE +X)? Umer, rator and denominatot by S, Ik] = — 2Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering ~ ECE ircui nt I, can also, be obtained from me Fined Dei tonite applied to the equivalent on 7 ies of a variable resistance R./S and fixed leakage re; ie i le variable resistance R,/S and fixed leakage reactance Jk, ae 4 single variable resistance R,/S can be Tepresented by a fixed resistance and a variable resistance as given by the following equation, R R SSH RAR 1 . =R, & a 1) +R, The modifications cartied out in ste ep 3 are shown in Figure 3.8 (a) to. Applying the power stages, in the the power available in the v; Corresponds to the mechanic; Variable resistance is called | 8 fixed Stationary ‘actance, By > equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3.8 (), ariable resistance in the © stationary rotor circuit ‘al power developed by R= RG -1) a 1 SER =3R Rg ) Shaft output Power, p « " 37 P jel (6) Equivatent Stationary Rotor Cl lb Rp Xe yy the motor P,. Hence ths | load resistance R..Cc rotating Machines Bay 4 Converting original stationary rotor circuit into its equivalent station order to interconnect the stator and rotor circuits aa a the original stationary-rotor circuit with T, turns sad ent E, is circuit. In y an equivalent stationary rotor circuit with T, turns electric circuit, replaced, in this step, b and emf E,’= E, as shown in Figure 3.9. Ry 4M, imto its Equivalent be an equivalent circuit to 8 (c) only if the following actual stationary rotor circuit it shown in figure 3.9 will ven in figure 3. Fig. 3.9. Converting % The stationary rotor circuit the original stationary rotor circuit gi conditions are satisfied. sferred to the two rotor circuits are the same. tor circuits are the same. i) Volt-ampere tran: developed in the two 1 ii) Mechanical power iii . ai. bs : ) Power loss in the two rotor circuits are the same. iv) P ; ) Percentage voltage drop in the two rotor circuits are the same- i) y ‘lt ampere Transferred | E}1, = E,l E, 1, = Exb E, y= Ee I, 5 = KL ii) 7 Mechanical » ower developed 3y!2p! 1?R! = 31 R,TU el ate: Ai Electrical an iii) Power loss sR! = 3G R ’ 1, u- [ays iron BB R =k iv) Percentage voltage drop BX _ W% BY AB, UX, LX EO 2, ) (I 1 (2\(2)y x E)(d)* X) X= RQ Step: 5 * Exact Equivalent circuit Since the number of turns and hence the emf in the equivalent stationary wt 5 coat is circuit are made equal to that of the stator circuit in the previous step. = no need for the two ideal windings. aie i ed Therefore in this step, a direct electrical connection can be estbll between the two circuits and the ideal windings may be removed: T™ give rise to the exact per phase equivalent circuit of a 3-phase Inductio® referred to the stator side as shown in Figure 3.10. is ™ mot!Ry! = Re(t/s -1) Fig. 3.10. Exact equivalent Circuit Referred to Stator Figure 3.11(a) shows the arrangement of two windings in the stator for a 7-pole motor. » Figure 3.11(b) shows the schematic representation an the phase diagram of the split-phase Induction motor. As the current through the two windings are obtained from the same 1-phase supply, the phase-angle difference between the two currents is obtained by having different impedance angle in the two windings. The main winding which d figure 3.11(c) shows is in the supply throughout the operation is would with coil of low resistance and high inductive reactance. Hence, the current through the main winding I,, !ags the applied voltage V, by a large angle. On the other hand the starting winding, which is connected to the supply only for a brief period during starting, js wound with coil of high resistance and low inductive reactance. : 4 Hence the current through the starting @, between the two currents ], and I,” : . : torque T, developed is given in the % The approximate relation for starting winding |, lags the angle difference of equation below. R 225.4 4 1, sin Ot 2 Ns ee a Phase winding (b) Symbolic representation co Split Fig. 311| i d Instrumente ar a a kc, £ Electrical an od us Fig. 3l1 (6 Splitphase motor 3.2. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION. MOTORS > L-phase Induction motors are extensively used as electric drives for low - applications such as home appliances like fans, grinders, reftigeatn air-conditioners, and small machine tools like drilling machines, power ha saw and pump motors etc. Pere: 4 Most of the 1-phase Induction Motors are constructed in fractional kilo-wat capacity and are used in places where 3-phase supply is not readily available, 3.2.4. Construction Of Single Phase Induction Motor 4 It consists of two parts. One is stator and another one is rotor. The ait gap between stator and rotor is uniform. There is no external connection between stator and rotor. Stator ; bed Fig. 3.12, Single Phase Induction Motor A ote 'nciple of operation, the 14 induction motor has no self~ st# ~ Nils can be explained in two types. > Two field or double re > Cross field theory, ii: i tik sinsiainiementll volving field theoryolvil damental principle ie) any alternating quantity tities which rotate in opposite directions aber into lave half of the mn itude- erating flux ($,,) prod i e alt tH m. luced in the 1 $i i induction motor ¢ Z an be wo revolving fluxes, , equal to half m of the value of 7 the presented by and each 1g synchronously | Ns P opposite remoting flux directions.” a sig : / Fig. 3.13. have been rotated by an angle + > and -@. $ This shows the vectors when they x would be 2 * Ge singe = 4m sin 8. After a quarter cycle 4 and b will be oppositely direction. “8 b + The resultant flu: of rotation, fluxes F-- js now 20° sultant of -2 xElectrical and Instrumentation Engineering ~ Eq Fig. 3.15. * After three quarters of a cycle, again the resultant is zero, Fig. 3.16. *% So the flux variation is 6m, 0, upon as composed of two PPosite direction, The slip of the rotor is given by g, « NsiN 7 Ng With, respect to the forward Totating flux. The slip with respect to te backward Totating flux is §, = Se CN) Ss sa vie Ne = ~$m, 0. Thus an alternating flux can be looked revolving fluxes each of half the values and Tevolving synchronously in oj Y3.17 Resultant torque Clockwise Anticlockwise Fig. 3.17. ent fluxes while nd thus produces \d backward torques) are opposite! e is equal to their differences revolving round the stator cuts the Obviously two 5 its own torque. ly directed so that torques (called i.e) resultant torqu‘ the net torque Gi 322, OPERATION OF SINGLE - PHASE INDUCT! 4 The stator winding of a 1¢ induction motor is connected to 1 o AC supply. Then a magnetic field is developed in the stator whose axis is always along the axis of stator windings. With alternating current in the field stator coil the mmf wave is stationary in space. but pulsates in magnitude and varies ION MOTOR | sinusoidal with time. Due to tl i ‘ | mee 2 transformer action, currents are induced in the rotor conductors. | e direction o! A f the current is to oppose the stator MMF. Thus the axis of j rotor mmf wave coinci ; einguclesile 12a es with the axis of stator mmf wave- Therefore the & Bopevecibatee wae no starting torque is developed in the motor. nd initially gi « will pick’up the given a staring torque Y quia speed and continue t iB ral by some means, tl n motor is not a self. 0 rotate in the sam? direction. starting motor. - the motor Thus the Starting of 14 Induction “ The starting motor . method winding in of 1 the stator is ie Induction motor is very simple. 4 th Vide imple. An auxiliary eA induction motor starts d in addi : : 2 tW0 ition to the main winding. Then the La hase motor.Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering ~ ECR 3.18: inding axis and auxiliary winding ms are displaceg by 7 ee fi impedances of the windings differ and Currents in the electrical es wining are phase sited from each other. As a ran a in and auxil es a rotating stator field is produced and the rotor rot is, When the motor speed is about 75% of syn. speed, fhe auxili disconnected from the circuit. This is done by connecting a c in the auxiliary winding which is used for st is called starting winding. ‘ary winding is entrifugal SWitch tarting purpose only. That is why it Under running condition, a 1 Induction motor can develop torque only with . : Bias ap main winding that is why itis called sunning winding. Main winding Auxiliary ey ie winding of stating arrangement provided, the 1-phase Induction as follows, i) Split Phase motor ii) Capacitor start motor 3.2.3. TYPES Based on the method Motors are Classified Capacitor start and run motor iv) Shaded Pole motor i) Split- Phase moto Jngl? if sine The cage Totor of the \-phase motor Can develop starting torque only i TOtating Magnetic fielg q : ing time. The sin? 18 provided at the starting time.ing Machines t ota grangement required 10 SUP rotating magnetic fl ' windings in the a stor Core displaced from one “i S to provide two degrees end excite them with two currents having stata ” a electrical almost 90°. le different of Figure 3,19 (a) shows the schematic representation and figure 3.19 ) the phasor diagram of the capacitor start motor. shows - SW (a) Schematic Representation (b) Phasor Diagram Fig. 3.19. Capacitor start motor Fig. 3.19. (0) Split phase motor - Phase diagram where a = NES square ro x, ot of ratio of main winding reactance to starting winding reactance. When the speed of the mx sorting Winding Will be dieccnones Sbout 70% of its synchronous speed, the Some MOOTS instead of enn ne bY means of a centrifugal switch cs. In the same job. ntrifugal switch, an electromagnetic relay may 40 7 agnetic rela;trical ane sr Elec _ inducti is the law startj it — phase induction motor is start tage of the split FP all phase angle difference 0,. isi in disadvant : ei motor develops due to the sm i s only few appli tions. this, the motor find: icat rotation can be reversed by interchanging the terminals op % The direction of ‘ cant either the main winding OT the starting, winding. * if) Capacitor start motor e This type of J-phase Induction motor overcomes the disadvantage of the split-phase motor. The starting torque will be maximum when 8, = 90°, Th, construction of capacitor start_ motor is almost similar to that of the split-phase motor; however, the designer is free to use almost similar type of coils for providing both the main and the starting windings. 4 The required phase angle difference of 90° is obtained by adding capacitance in series with the starting winding. 4 Absence of centrifugal switch makes this type of motor highly suitable f applications involving frequent starting and stopping or speed control s; : applications are ceiling fans, washing machine, refrigerators etc. = Shaded Pole Motor >. The e Rotor of the shaded-pole motor is of squirrel cage type and the stator has ‘ator even number of salient poles each. ‘i 10) ith i - shown in Figure 3.20, provided with its own exciting coil a he salient poles are YY ent steel sheets with voile aieie laminated silicon content | sheets a slot cut actoss the laminations at about one-third the distance from one edg® .¢ from one ede Arauadthe alec} T Te : : shading. ‘gion provided by this slot, a thick copper ting called Coil is provided and : | region. All the Sagres of the pole under this region is called chased i i 1} . in series, 's provided around the salient oes cont |een es, Machines ‘H ott Shading pole shading pole Fig. 3.20. Shaded, pole motor -phase supply to the resultant exciting coil terminals. Pulsating Ongiving the 1 oraltenating magnetic fields are set up in the salient poles. & The main winding current I,, lags the applied voltage V,. The current through ade to lead the applied voltage V, by the presence the starting winding I, is m of more capacitive reactance offered by added capacitance C than inductive reactance offered by the starting winding. . 4 Enough value of capacitance is added, so that the phase angle 6, between I, and I, reaches close to 90°. As in split-phase motors, the starting winding will be disconnected from the supply when the speed reaches about 70% of its synchronous peed. Capacitor Start and Run Motor © This motor is simi zs Rae ae similar to a capaCitor start motor except for the absence of the wi 5 itch. The schematic representation is shown in Figure 3.21. Fig. 3, 3.21. © “pacitor Start and Run Motor_—— 3.22 Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering - ECE * oo 3.2.4, * Apart from the main winding (MW) the second winding connected in Setieg with a capacitor also remains connected to the supply all the time, The Secong winding now therefore is called as auxiliary winding (AW) Unlike in capacitor start motors, the auxiliary winding and the Associate capacitor should be designed for continuous operation. The value op the capacitance C is normally designed to give good running performance, Hence, it may not give the desired 90° phase angle difference between 1, and T, giving rise to less starting torque than the capacitor start motor, Adjacent salient poles have magnetic fields of opposite polarity. Most Of the flux 9 set up in the poles enter into the air-gap through the un-shaded Portion of the poles as $,. The remaining pulsating flux Passing through the shaded region causes an emf to get induced in the shading coil and hence allows g current through it. Induced current in the shading coil causes thi lag the flux in the un-shaded region 6,. This gives in effect, a motion of flux across the pole face from un-shaded region to shaded Tegion. Under the influence of this moving flux the rotor gets its starting torque developed and starts rotating in the direction specified by the un-shaded to shaded region-in the pole face. The starting torque of the shaded-pole motor is very small but the motor is very compact in size and shape. Some of its applications are small fans, hait driers etc. STARTING OF 1-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR 7 The starting method of 1) Induction motor is very simple, An auxlis) winding in the stator. is Provided in addition to the main winding. The? 7 induction motor starts as a two phase motor, eo The main winding axis and auxiliary winding axis are displaced we electrical degree. The impedances of the windings differ and currents - of na” a4 auxiliary winding are phase shifted from each other. As this, a rotating stator field is produced and the rotor rotates. e flux in the shaded Tegion 9; to 4 ‘ / j ]pe auxiliary winding which is used for siege 3 cents Bis th . Le or starting pu gal switch «called starting winding. tpose only. That is why i is call why it ‘ under running © winding that andition, 7 ae Induction motor can develo is why it is called running winding, P torque only with mail Main winding Auxiliary winding Fig. 3.22. Starting of 1 |-phase Induction motor 3.3. ALTERNATOR 33.4, Construction of Alternator Stator f sheet-steel | It is the stationary part of j laminations having slots on its 4% A3 Winding is placed in these alternator. The alternator windin js connected to ground. the ‘machine and is built up o inner periphery. ri oe Jots and serves as the armature winding © g is always connected 1 Rotor The rotor ‘ two slip vine be a field winding which is supp! igs by a separate de source. Rotor constru' ied with direct current through ction is of two types > Sali — or Projecting pole type fon-Salient or Cylindrical typeElectrical and Instrumentation Engineering - ECE le Salient Pole Type Salient pole Field windings Fig. 3.23. Salient Pole Type The rotor of this type is used almost alternators, since it is least expensive and provides ample space for the field ampere turns. Salient poles cannot be entirely for slow and moderate Speed employed in high speed generators on account of very high peripheral speed and the difficulty of obtaining sufficient mechanical strength. % The Field coils are placed in the pole-pieces and connected in series. The ens of the field windings are Connected to a de source through slip-tings carrying brushes and Mounted on the shaft of the field Structure. Smooth cylindrical op Non-Salie; % i n t Te Rotors of this type are ‘sed in very high speed alternators driven bY 0 turbines. To reduce the Peripheral velocity, the diameter of the 101! Teduced and axial length j ‘1 s. Simeteased, Such rotors have two or four pole int Pole Type3.25 Non - salient pole Field winding Fig. 3.24, Non-Salient Pole Type cylindrical steel forging which’ is. suitably fabricated mechanically and treated thermally. The forging has radial slots in which the field copper, usually in strip form is placed. The coils are held in place by metal rings. The slots ott consists of ges and the coil ends are fastened by steel or bronze over certain portions of the core are omitted to form pole faces. The regions forming the poles are usually left unslotted. 142. Working of Alternator The field Magnets are ‘magnetized by applying 125V or 250V through slip mate N and S poles are rings. The field windings are connected such that, altel produced. The rotor and hence the field magnets are driven by the prime mover. As the ae oe ee the armature conductors are cut by the Magnetic flux. emf is i i cs cae induced in the armature conductors. ‘As the Magnetic poles ie: dessin and § poles, this emf acts in one direction and then in the 4 Hence an alter ternating “wr : emf is induced in the stator conductors. The frequency of induced emf d lepends 4. mss cote in fe the number of Nand $ poles moving past an the direction of ing me second. x frequency igo tiueed em Y is given by f can be found by Fleming’s right hand rule andElectrical and Instrumentation Engineering - EG, [= sbsupply ‘Stator winding Rotor Fig. 3.25, Working of Alternator 3.3.3. EMF EQUATION OF AN ALTERNATOR Let, Zs, Number of, conductors or coil sides in series / Phase Zn Tip T,,- number Of coils P ~ Number of poles re Frequency of induced emf in H, $ ~ Flux pole in W, Ka ~ distribution factor = Siam B/2 m sin B/2 K,or K, — pitch factor or coil span factor = Cos a/2 K, - form factor = 1 N — Rotor Speed in rpm, * For one ry i do = gp dt = 60/N Second % Average emf induced Per conductor 4 Ppp at ~ CON as PN f Po orn = 20Foid Machines gubstitute this value of N, we get = ly 60 *"P 2/6 Volt If there are Z,, conductors in series/phase, then Average emf/phase = 2 S9Z,, Volts = 4f9T,, Volts RMS value of emf/phase = 4.11 x4T,, = 4.44 fT ,y, Volts Actually available voltage /phone = 4.44 K, oKafeT i, KX, = K, = Winding factor 43.4. Voltage Regulation 4 The terminal voltage of Altemators is subjected to change with change in ia condition. Load condition includes the magnitude of the load current as wel as the power factor of the load. in terminal voltage from no-load to i ruses decrease in terminal voltag * ied. On & jena leading PF loads causes increase in terminal full-load. On the © ‘Voltage from no-load 10 full load. lation . . Definition of voltage REET ay altemator is defined as the change in terminal 4 The voltage reat condition expressed as faction or percentage of voltage from no-! a “Toad condition, the speed and excitation conditions * tage terminal vol remaining same Voltage regulation percentage, ° ‘ol IE] — |U| Upp = a x 100 aracteristics joad characteristics of alternators reveals that ‘rage and hence the voltage r wotpnitude ofthe load curren, Regulation canta i the change in terminal regulation URP, apart from depending on the also depends on the PF of the load.ee Tectrical and Instrumentation Engineering. ECr Electric 3.28 : N.F= Constant '= Constant +URP. —URP Fig. 3.26, Regulation Characteristics of Alternators ig. 3. an Alternator, 3.4, SYNCHRONOUS MOTorRS * Synchronous Motors possess the following three distinct characteristic features, i) The Motor is not in upto Synchronous o itis Synchronized, it) The Speeq of operation is always in-syneh the AC Voltage plied to it ii NO-load or half full-load or fu T hear sync] ronism with the frequency of Tespective of load Conditions, whether 09 ll load, +t) The motor i 'S Capable of, lagging of U, either SPerating at any desired power factor, Pr Or leading,ting, Machines oo ta iP rinciple of Operation ele vos ‘ , when @ sinusoidal voltage is applied to a wi ced by a resultant current flow will also be respect to time. This means that the field is pkey nding, the Magnetic field oidally varying with 4, Now when @ 36 voltage is applied to a three phase windin th will be the resultant of all the three pulSating fields, 8 the flux produced @ Itcan be shown that the resultant field has a magnitude of 1 Som where 4 1 . Is the maximum value of the flux due to a single phase current. Further it i be shown that the direction of the field changes continuously (i,e) the field is rotating in space at a speed given by, 120xF Ns =p ‘> This speed is called the synchronous speed. Hence it is to be remembered that when a 36 supply is given to a 36 winding a Magnetic field of constant Magnitude but rotating at a constant speed, N,y is produced. 3osupply 3psupply Fig. 3.27. 4 The two fictitious stator poles marked Ns and Ss assumed to rotate clockwise at a synchronous speed Ns, The Rotor poles Nz and Sx are formed by the DC excitation. When Ng and Np are together like poles repel each other Siow and Ss are moving in the clockwise direction. Bae cys later, the stator poles haye moved, whereas the rotor poles have significantly. N, and Sy and similarly Sand Ne get atached ne rotor the rotor ties to rotate + tate in clockwise direction. This implies that the expetiences toraue ; a at Rotor ig at abd g different directions every half a cycle. AS # result Ul due to jg 4 a ‘0 its large inertia.cirical and Instrumentation Engineering - ECE Ele Fig. 3.28. ‘This explains why by itself. + However * direction as the synchronously rotating stato then it is possible that at some instant of time, Ns and S, and — Ss wd Np get attracted and locked to one another. motor if it is started up by some means. a synchronous motor has no starting torque and cannot start xr if the rotor is now rotated separately by a prime motor in the same 1 field, and at a speed near N, Hence a synchronous motor, though not self-starting, starts working as a It needs two separate supplies — one a de source for excitation of the Rotor and other, a 36 Supply for the stator. Because of the interlocking between the stator and rotor poles, the motor runs only at one speed, the synchronous + speed. 3.4.2. Equivalent Circuit and Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Motor Re x, \ f ‘a wo Field i ! S E ieee DC supply b Fig. 3.29, Equivalent Circuit and Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Motorchines (3.31) = potating Mai * It shows the equivalent circuit model for one armature phase of cylindrical shronous motor. srotor syn » The applied voltage V is the vector sum of reversed back emf (i.e )— E, and impedance 4r0P 1, Za V=— 5, +1, Zy The angle between the phasots V and E, is called the load angle or power angle of the synchronous motor. Except for motor is neglig very small machines, the armature resistance of a synchronous ible as compared to its synchronous reactance. I, Xs i Ext < Fig. 3.30. AB = E, sind AB Cosh = TX. os = 1X 0 AB = I, Xs008¢ E,sin8, = I, Xs cost E, sind La cosh-~ XS P = VI, cosb aa VE, sin 8 _—< » = Ny in = Xe sin 8 for 3phases % Since Stator coy eI Pper loss has been neglected, Pi, also represents the gross mechanical \ Power (pm) dev eloped by the motor. 3E,V \ F Gross torg P, = sind we developed ‘s ped by the motor.wn 3.32 Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering - ECE r= Baas (0,2) a 6 P,, N 3.43. Torque Equation of the Synchroijous Motor OL — supply voltage/ phase a I — Armature current LM ~ Back EMF at a load angle of 8 OM — Resultant voltage ER E, - IZ, +f % Line NS is drawn at angle 6 to LM, * LN and QS are Perpendicular to NS.c rotating Machines ; Mechanical power developed per phase in the Qt Toto Prech = E,1 cos y : In AOMS, MS = IZ; cosy MS = NS-NM=LQ-NM IZ,cos y = Vcos(0-8)-E,cos® [OR] a Ns E Leos w= 7, cos (0 - 8) - Z cos 0 Vv. E BZ cos (0-8) -%, caso | 2 a é Pinech/Phase = “7: cos (0-8) - Zs cos 8 Prnech/ Phas: jeveloped in terms of load ression for the mechanical power d for a constant voltage v % This is the exp! e motor angle (a) and the internal angle 0 of the and E,. an be found by differentiating the Maximum Power Developed Z eloped c: ing it to zero. “ Condition for maximum power devi above expression with respect to load angle and then equati spt AP rnech -E,V —neh = = sin Q@-8)=0 do, Zs @-8) anil s sin (@~8) = Oor 0-5 :. Value of maximum power" 2 EV & Pret) mex = F- — Zr 0088 ax Zs Zs cos 2 av 8 * This shi 7 Zs “Zs ea imum power and hence torque depends on V and E, that is . Maxit jum value of 8 and hence a is 90°. For all values of V anCLV CSP AoA ows Electric and Instrumentation Engineering . Ece lectrical i t ‘ this limiting value of is the same but maximum torque E,, this ional to the maximum power developed. % IfR,is neglected, then Z, = Xz and 0 = 90° This gives the value of mechanical Power developed in terms of 8. The basic variable of a synchronous machine. E,V Prec (Max) = — when (5 = 90°) This corresponds to the ‘pull out torque’ * To determine the value of excitation or induced emf E, to give maximum Power developed possible, differentiate with Tespect to E, and equate to zero. Paecs(MAX) YE, “de, 7-7! cos0=0 (OR) Vv 2cos @ E, = 2 E & Rd " v Fes 6 i Paeca (max) be v2 v2 2Zscos @ ~ 4Z, cos 0o potating Machines R, = Effectiv ¢ Resistanc cir nee ye of the motor 4R, a Starting Methods The 3-phase synchronous motors are st 2 methods: igh arted by any one of the following three i) By an extra small 3-phase cage Induction motor. ii) By providing cage/damper winding in pole faces. iii) By operating the pilot excites as a DC motor. (@) Byan Extra, Small 3-phase Cage Induction Motor & This method of starting the 3-phase Synchronous motor requires an extra 3-phase squirrel- cage Induction motor with power capacity around 25% that of the Synchronous motor. The Induction motor used should also be wound for the same number of poles as that of the Synctironous motor and both are mechanically coupled together. Figure 3,33 shows the connection diagram. Rectifier auto Fig. 3:33. Startine by extra Induction Motor36 * + (ii) By Providing Cage/Da * Jectrical and Instrumentation Engineering - Ec Electri -phase autotransformers ly TPST switch, the two 3-phas: el ae Prior to closing the Sa and DPDT switch is closed to the vo! meter Side, set to minimum Sahil closed and the starter of the extra Pict on Motor ig Now the TPST switch i ra Inductiog motor to start and drive the main : is causes the ext rt switched on. Ta in a specific direction at a speed slightly below the Secs sped. Ts the intial force requted to overcome the inertia o synchronous : the Synchronous motor is provided. Now a reduced 3-phase voltage is applieg to the Synchronous motor by its autotransformer. ; This will cause the rotating magnetic field to setup in the Synchronous motor, Further it has to be ensured that the direction of this rotating magnetic field is in the same direction of rotation of its shaft. Checking of this requirement can be obtained by the reading in the voltmeter connected across the -DPDT. In case if the rotating magnetic field in the Synchronous motor is in opposite direction to its shaft, then the field coil is subjected to this weak rotating magnetic field with large relative speed, approximately twice the synchronous speed, Hence a large voltage is induced in the field coil which will be indicated by a large deflection in the voltmeter. If the above indication is experienced, then the main autotransformer has to be brought to minimum and connection to any two leads of the Synchronous motor is interchanged. This rectification will be indicated by the voltmeter with only a small deflection, when the voltage impressed to the Synchronous motor is increased, Now the DPST switch is chan, DC exciting current is Passed can sense the magnetic | fields of the Synchronous mot Bed over to the rectifier side and the required on to the field winding, At a particular insta locking take Place between the stator and rotor ‘or. Now the motor can be with its rated volbgt ad the extra Tnduction motor can be switcher off. The Synchronous m0!" will continue to deliver the required mechanical Power on its own. imper Winding in Pole Faces It has been discussed that the ‘Synchronous machines jg very motor. Therefore, instead of goit starting purposes, it is Stator construction of rotating field . much identical to that of 3ephase Indust ng for a separate 3-phase Induction ce “ough to accommodate additional squitel 9 censynchronous motor, it will start as an Inducti . ion. . direction as that of the rotating magnetic field motor and rotate in the same ¢ Figure 334 shows the Synchronous motor startin cd. characteristics provided by two different cage windings, nr ¢ Characteristic (1) corresponds to a cage winding with relatively less value of resistance. ¢ Although a low Tesistance cage winding provides relatively less, starting torque as T,, in Fig. 3.34, the pull-in torque T,, developed at speed of 0.95 N, is larger. At this speed, if the rotor field winding is provided with DC exciting current, the motor pull its rotor into synchrofiism and thereafter continue to operate as Synchronous motor with speed N;. 4 The cage winding then become inactive. On the other hand, a high resistance cage winding give rise to a larger starting torque Ty as shown by the characteristic (2) in Fig. 3.34. But the pull-in torque T,, available at 0.95 is relatively less. The choice between the two characteristics should be exercised based on the specific requirement for a particular motor. max Ot torts Te ue due to cage winding Fig. 3.34. Tord vitjam proving a self ~ starting forthe ts into operation whenever the motor is Synchronous motor, will again ae During the transient period, the torque subjected to change in load conditio® — < achronous machine in getting soi a ist th developed by the cage winding will assis The squirrel - cage winding, - 4}34 MD3.4.5. + oF Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering ~ ECE its load angle change to new value without any oscillations. As in this Petiog Ie cage winding causes the damping out of the oscillations, the cage Winding is otherwise called as damper winding. BY OPERATING THE PILOT EXCITER AS A Dc MOTOR Most of the Synchronous machines are usually coupled with the Pilot Xcite, a small DC shunt machine, to Provide necessary DC current to the field winding of the Synchronous machine during normal operation, In addition, if necessary, a DC supply is also made available to start the Synchronous machine. Figure 3.35 shows the connection diagram. All the switches are initially kept at open position. The Pilot excite Tegulating rheostat Rp is ke field ept at minimum Position and S: field tegulating rheostat R, 'ynchronous Machine The DPST SWitch ig Otor and drive al +s 18 kept at maximum, Position, unt it machine starts acting as a m the Synchronous machine.Fig. 3.35. Operating pilot exciter as starting motor SOLVED PROBLEMS p A 3-phase 415 V, star connected slip-ring induction motor has gator to rotor turns ratio as 6. The rotor resistance and stand still reactance per phase are 0.6 Qand 0.3 Qrespectively. Find the value of the rotor current per phase and power factor at the time of ‘starting. Given Data V7 415 V, K= 1/6, R= R, = 0.06 2, X,=030 To find =? Cos 0, =? Solution: » ; Since the stator winding is star cornet 22 415 yi re ria 239.6V Neglecting stator winding voltage drop. B, = V,=239.6V E, aged ET) eK== : 239. LEAK 2,228 = 39.933 V D Zy = (Ry +sXq) = (0.06 +7 0.3)9