CAVENDISH UNIVERSITY – ZAMBIA

ASSIGNMENT BRIEF AND FEEDBACK FORM

STUDENT No. 110 174

LECTURER:

MODULE: Computer Architecture And Organization

MODULE CODE: IT 225

ASSIGNMENT NUMBER: One

DATE HANDED OUT:

DATE DUE IN: 5/04/2025

ASSIGNMENT BRIEF/

1. Input/Output Devices

2. Accessing Input /Output Devices

3. Mode of Data Transfer

4. Concept of Pipe lining

STUDENT INSTRUCTIONS
1. This form must be attached to the front of your assignment.

2. The assignment must be handed in without fail by submission date (see assessment schedule for your course)

3. Ensure that submission date is date stamped by the reception stuff when you hand it in.
 4. Late submission will not be entertained unless with prior agreement with the tutor

5. All assessable assignments must be word processed.

This assignment is intended to assess the student’s knowledge in all of the following areas.
However, greater emphasis should be given to those item marked with a

(Tutor: - please tick as applicable)

SL No ASSESSMENT SKILLS Please Tick

1 Good and adequate interpretation of the question

2 Knowledge and application of the relevant theories

3 Use of relevant and practical examples to back up theories

4 Ability to transfer and relate subject topic to each other

5 Application and use of appropriate models

6 Evidence of library research

7 Knowledge of theories

8 Written business English communication skills

9 Use of visual (graphs) communication

10 Self-assessed ‘time management’

11 Evidence of field research

Tutor’s Marks contribution

(Administrativ
LECTURER’S FEEDBACK e only)
INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are critical components of computer systems because they allow people to
interact with computers and supply data for processing. These devices convert raw
information into a format that the computer's central processor unit (CPU) can read and
process. This contact is essential for tasks like entering text, managing graphical interfaces,
recording audio or video, and so on. Input devices serve as a link between the user and the
computer, facilitating communication and allowing the computer to do a variety of tasks.

There are several sorts of input devices, each designed for a certain type of data or
interaction. For example, keyboards are used to enter text and commands, whereas mice are
used to navigate graphical user interfaces. Scanners digitize images and text, while
microphones record audio data. Touchscreens integrate input and display capabilities,
enabling users to interact directly with on-screen objects. Joysticks are commonly used for
gaming or operating machinery, whereas webcams capture video input for communication or
recording purposes. The variety of input devices allows people to interact with computers in a
variety of ways, making them useful tools in both professional and personal settings.

The value of input devices cannot be emphasized. Without them, users would be unable to
give instructions or change computer settings. Input devices are essential for operations like
word processing, gaming, multimedia creation, and more. They allow for seamless contact
between humans and machines, making computers important in modern life. Whether for
work, education, or enjoyment, input devices play an important role in improving computer
functionality and facilitating user-computer interaction. Computers' adaptability and variety
allow them to be employed efficiently across a wide range of industries and applications.

OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices are essential parts of computer systems that present processing results in a
human-readable format. These devices collect data from the computer's central processing
unit (CPU), which processes input data and converts it into representations such as text,
graphics, audio, or physical output. Monitors, printers, speakers, and projectors are among
examples. Output devices allow users to successfully access and use the outcomes of
computing processes by transforming machine-readable information into human-readable
formats. This interaction is essential for tasks like viewing papers, listening to audio, and
displaying visual media.
There are several types of output devices designed to meet different demands. Monitors show
graphical and textual information on displays, whereas printers create tangible copies of
papers or images. Speakers and headphones produce audio output for enjoyment or
communication needs. Braille embossers and haptic devices are specialized devices that
convert digital data into tactile representations to meet accessibility needs. Projectors are used
to deliver large-scale visual presentations, making them excellent for educational and
business contexts. The importance of output devices stems from their ability to make
computational results accessible and meaningful to users, allowing for a wide range of
applications in professional, personal, and industrial settings.

ACESSING INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES

Accessing I/O devices is an important factors of computer systems,
allowing communication between the CPU and hardware peripherals.
Device drivers play an important role in this process by serving as
software interfaces between the operating system and the hardware.
These drivers convert high-level directives into low-level instructions that
the hardware can execute, resulting in smooth interaction between
software and devices. For example, device drivers enable printers,
keyboards, and monitors to function properly within an operating system.
Without these drivers, device compatibility would be difficult to achieve,
limiting computer usage.

Memory-mapped I/O and isolated I/O are the two most common
techniques of accessing I/O devices. Memory-mapped I/O devices share
the same address space as the computer's memory, making it possible to
interface with them using ordinary memory instructions. This strategy
simplifies communication by treating device registers as part of the
system's memory, but it necessitates careful coordination to avoid
conflicts. In contrast, isolated I/O employs separate address regions for
memory and devices, necessitating the usage of specialized
communication commands. While isolated I/O provides a clear separation
between memory and device operations, it might be inefficient due to the
necessity for separate instructions.

Bus systems are another important method for accessing I/O devices. A bus connects all
devices in a computer system, transporting address, data, and control signals between the
CPU and the peripherals. This shared communication channel enables numerous devices to
interact concurrently while remaining compatible with older platforms. Advanced bus
architectures, such as extension buses, allow for parallel connections, resulting in faster data
transfer and better scalability. Bus systems are important in modern computing environments
because they allow for effective communication among varied hardware components.

MODES OF DATA TRANSFER

There are a number of different ways that data can be transferred between input/output
devices and the computer, and each one is designed to maximize efficiency and resource
utilization. One of these ways is called Programmed Input/Output, in which the central
processing unit actively manages data transfer by continuously polling the input/output
device to check its readiness. This method is easy to implement, but it is inefficient for large
data transfers or high-speed devices because the central processing unit is occupied and
leaves little room for other tasks. In contrast, Interrupt-Driven Input/Output increases
efficiency by allowing the central processing unit to do other tasks while it waits for the
device to signal its readiness via an interrupt. This asynchronous method minimizes idle
central processing unit time and is especially helpful for devices with unpredictable response
times.

Direct Memory Access is a more advanced way of data transfer that does not require the
constant involvement of the central processor unit. A Direct Memory Access controller takes
over the data bus, allowing for direct connection between memory and peripheral devices.
This approach greatly lowers central processing unit overhead while improving system
performance, making it perfect for high-speed data transfers. Direct Memory Access, unlike
scheduled or interrupt-driven input/output, allows for parallelism between central processing
unit and input/output activities, resulting in more efficient use of system resources.
Furthermore, Serial Transfer transfers data one bit at a time over a single line, making it
suited for long-distance communication, whereas Parallel Transfer sends multiple bits
concurrently over many lines, resulting in faster data transfer speeds but needing more
hardware connections.

Another kind of transmission of data is Half-Duplex Transmission, which allows data to

travel in both directions but only one at a time. In this mode, a device can send or receive
data at any time, but not both. This strategy is frequently employed in situations where two-
way communication is required but does not have to occur simultaneously, such as with
walkie-talkies or specific network protocols. While slower than full-duplex transmission,
half-duplex transmission saves bandwidth by alternating between sending and receiving
processes.
Each mode serves a distinct purpose, based on the needs of the application or device.
Although programmed input/output allows for fine control, it is inefficient for large-scale
activities. Interrupt-driven Input/Output balances central processing unit consumption by
performing activities asynchronously. Direct Memory Access is appropriate for high-speed
applications since it completely offloads the central processing unit during transmission.
Serial and parallel transfers address different scenarios depending on speed and distance
requirements, but half-duplex transmission offers a balanced approach to bidirectional
communication in smaller systems. Together, these modes provide flexibility and adaptability
in handling many sorts of devices and applications in current computer settings.

CONCEPT OF PIPE LINING

Pipelining is a computer architecture approach that improves processor performance by
overlapping the execution of several instructions. Instead of processing one instruction at a
time, pipelining breaks the instruction cycle down into phases such as retrieve, decode,
execute, memory access, and write-back. Each stage completes a specific task, allowing
numerous instructions to be in different stages of completion at once. This strategy is akin to
an industrial assembly line, in which different pieces of a product are worked on at different
stations simultaneously. Pipelining boosts throughput and reduces overall execution time per
instruction by allowing instructions to be processed in parallel.

Pipelining improves CPU efficiency and increases instruction throughput. Because multiple
regions of the processor are used concurrently, there is little idle time, which optimizes
hardware resources. Pipelining, on the other hand, brings with it a number of risks. These
hazards include data dependencies, control conflicts, and structural flaws that might cause the
pipeline to slow and lose efficiency. Despite these disadvantages, pipelining remains a key
component of modern processor architecture due to its potential to improve performance for
repeated operations and large-scale computing workloads.
REFERENCES
1. “Accessing I/O Devices.” SlideShare, Slideshare, 8 Mar. 2013,
www.slideshare.net/slideshow/accessing-io-devices/17040553.
Accessed 5 Apr. 2025.
2. BYJU'S. “Input and Output Devices of Computer | Functions &
Questions.” BYJUS, byjus.com/govt-exams/input-output-devices/.
3. “Pipelining in Computer Architecture | GATE Notes.” BYJUS,
byjus.com/gate/pipelining-in-computer-architecture-notes/.
4. tezu.vikash. “Modes of Data Transfer - VCMOS.” VCMOS, 29 Dec.
2023, vcmos.com/modes-of-data-transfer/. Accessed 5 Apr. 2025.
5. Wikipedia Contributors. “Input/Output.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia
Foundation, 12 Mar. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output.