ROUTING PROTOCOLS AND TRANSPORT LAYER IN AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS 3,4 INTRODUCTION Inad hoc networks all nodes are mobile and can be connected dynamically in part in anarbitrary manner. All nodes of these networks behave as routers and tal discovery and maintenance of routes to other nodes in the network. Since the nodes are mobile the network topology is highly dynamic. An ad hoc routing protocol controls how nodes decide which way to route packets between computing devices ina network. 3.2 ISSUES IN DESIGNING A ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS The following are the challenges in designing a routing protocol for ad hoc wireless networks. Mobility of Nodes: Y Due to the mobility of nodes, the network topology in an ad hoe wireless lynamic which result in path brea! network is highly d the movement of the intermediate nodes in ’ Interference occur either due to the path or due to the movement of end nodes. Y Wired network routing protocols cannot be used in ad hoc wireless networks since the mobility of nodes esults in dynamic topologies. ’ vireless networks must be designed in such a Routing protocols for ad hoe v way that mobility management is made effectively and efficiently,lear ~ # Ad hoe and Sensor Ney, orks ‘ refers to the la 4 The exposed terminal probl is blocked due to transmission by a nearby transmitting node, to transmit 10 anoth, er node sion from node B to node A is already taking place, node ¢:¢, vy Tfatransmi transmit to node D, as it concludes that, its neighbor bode B is in transmj mode and thus it should not interfere with the current transmission, bility of radio spectrum is affected. Mm As a result, the reus The transmission frequency of node C should be different from its receiy < Transmission Range of Node A _: Transmission > Exposed transmission Figure 3.2 Exposed Terminal Problem Resource Constraints: ¥ — The battery life and processing power are the two important and inadequ* resources that form the key constraint for the nodes in an ad hoe witel network, a ; ' sity aol ¥ ~The devices used in ad hoe wireless networks mostly require portability ™ hence they also have size and weight constraints along with the limitations! the power source,& Routing Protocols and Transport Layer in AD HOC Wireless Networks # [3.5 | y¥ Raising the bi attery power and processing ability makes the nodes massive and less portable. y Therefore ad hoc wireless network routing protocols must optimally manage _ battery life and processing power. Characteristics of an Ideal Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks: Due to the ues in an ad hoc wireless network environment, it requires specific routing protocols that address the challenges described above. A routing protocol for ad hoc wireless networks should have the following characteristics: 1, Since distributed routing is more fault tolerant than centralized routing, the routing protocol must be fully distributed. 2, It must be adaptive to dynamic network topology caused by the mobility of nodes. 3. Route computation and maintenance must involve a minimum number of nodes. Each node in the network must have rapid access to routes ie, minimum connection setup time is preferred. 4. It must be localized, as global state maintenance involves a huge state propagation control overhead. 5. It must be loop-free and free from out of date routes. 6. By limiting the number of broadcasts made by each node, the number of packet collisions must be kept to a minimum. The transmissions should be reliable to reduce message loss and to avoid the occurrence of out of date routes. 7. It should converge to optimal routes once the network topology becomes stable and the convergence must be quick. 8. The limited resources such as bandwidth, computing power, memory and battery power must be optimally used. 9. Every node in the network should try to store information about the stable local topology only. Frequent changes in local topology and changes in inaccessible parts of the network must not cause updates in the topology information maintained by the node. 10. It should be able to provide an assured level of quality of service (QoS) as demanded by the applications and should also provide support for time- Sensitive tral a4 Ad hoc and Sensor Networks , 3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ROUTING pRoTocoLs sq networks can be classified into differen Is for ad hoc wireless network, Routing protocols for ad hoc wirele: ting protoco! types based on different criteria. The rou can be broadly classified into four categories based on Y Routing information update mechanism Use of temporal information for routing v Y — Routing topology Y Utilization of specific resources Based on the Routing Information Update Mechanism: ad hoc wireless network Based on the routing information update mechanism, s. They are: routing protocols can be classified into three major categorie: Routing information update J v. 1 Proactive Reactive Hybrid -DSDV: 7 ate — CEDAR; - WRP; -ABR; - ZRP; -CGSR: -SSA; igo - STAR; ~ FORP; -OLSR; ~PLBR. FSR; ~HS | Figure 3.3 Classification of Routing Protocols based on Routing Informatio! Update Mechanism 7@ Routing Protocols and Transport Layer in AD HOC Wireless Networks 37 Proactive or (able-driven routing protocols: In table-driven routing protocols, each node builds its own routing table by periodically updating the network topology information. The routing table is used to find a path to a destination by executing an appropriate path-finding algorithm on the topology information it maintains. All the nodes in network update the routing tables in order to maintain a consistent and updated view of the network, Reactive or on-demand routing protocols: Reactive routing protocols do not maintain the network topology information. The source obtains a path to a specific destination only when it is required, by using a connection establishment process. Reactive routing protocols do not exchange routing information periodically. Hybrid routing protocols: Hybrid routing protocols combines the best features of both proactive and reactive routing protocols. Nodes are grouped into zones based on their geographical locations or distances from each other. Routing inside a single zone is based on table-driven mechanisms while an on-demand routing approach is applied for routing nodes that are located beyond this zone. 3.4 PROACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS 3.4.1 Destination Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV): The destination sequenced distance-vector routing protocol (DSDV) is one of the earliest protocols proposed for ad hoc wireless networks. ions are readily VY Asit isa table-driven routing protocol, routes to all desti available at every node at all times. Y The tables are exchanged between neighbors periodically to keep an up-to- date view of the network topology. ¥ The tables are also forwarded if a node obs siderable change in local topology. ¥ There are two type 1, incremental updates 5 of table update 2. (Full dumps)3.8 6 Ad hoe and Sensor Networks , Att incremental update considers sider multiple NDPUs. ingle network data packet unit (NDP). whereas a full dump may cor Incremental updates) are made when a node does not observe Significany changes in the local topology. Table updates are initiated by a destination with a new sequence number which, is alway bigger than the earlier one. By receiving an updated table, a node either updates its tables based on the received information or holds it for a moment to select the best metric receive from several versions of the same update table from different neighboring nodes. The table may be forwarded or rejected based on the sequence number of the table update. The routes are readily available at all the nodes as shown in figure 3.4, In this topology, i10de Is the source node and iode 15}is the destination node. The routing table of node 1 indicates that the shortest route to the destination node (node 15) exists through node 5 and it is at 4 hop distance. Destination D os eee ar 3|_2 [2 af 35 [2[22 ss [1 [us oe] 6 [1 [us 7{_ 2 | 3 [102 8 5 3 [170 9 | 2 [4 [iso wf 6 | 2 [ie Te 72)] mst |ok [oo 4 3 (a) Topology graph of the network (b) Routing table for Node | Figure 3.4 Route Establishment in DSDV4 routing Protocols and Transport Lay in AD HOC Wireless Networks & 3.9 peconfiguration of a Path: y__ The broken link’s weight is assigned to i greater than the stored sequence numb link. ¥. Onreceiving an update with Weight “ infinity (‘“) and with a sequence number cr of that destination node for a broken - each node rapidly disseminate it to its neighbors in order to propagate the broken-link information to the entire network. ¥ The whole network will be updated by the broadcast of table update information even for a single link break. ¥ Anodd sequence number is assigned to the link break update to differentiate it from the even sequence number generated by the destination. In figure 3.5, assume that node 11 moves from its current position. When a neighbor node perceives the link break, it sets all ‘the pat hs passing throt broken link with distance as “. If node 10 knows about the link break, it sets the path to node 11 as “ and propagates its routing table to its neighbors. The broken link information propagates all over the network. All nodes receiving the updated message with the higher sequence number set the new distance to node 11 in their corresponding tables. As shown in figure 3.5, the updated table at node | has the current distance from node 1 to node 11 and the distance has increased from three to four hops. Routing table for Node 1 as Dex | Next Node Dit [Sean Destination!D 212 I1t2l i (ss). 3[ 2 [2/36 oy 4,3 [2]2 (a) s{s [i fis o|_¢ [1s 7/2 [3 fre 8 5 3 {170 9 2 4 | 186 SourcelD) Figure 3.5 Route Maintenance in DSDVFa domes 3.10 4 Ad hoc and Sensor Network, , Advantages: Y — Since the routers are readily available to all destinations at all times, the delay is less in the route setup process. ¥ With the help of mechanisms like incremental updates, an existing wired network protocol can be applied to ad hoc wireless networks. Disadvantages: Y¥ The updates due to broken links lead to a heavy control overhead during high mobility. ¥ The control overhead is proportional to the number of nodes in the network, which also affects the scalability of the network. v A node has to wait for a table update message to obtain information about a destination node and this delay might provide stale information at nodes. 3.4.2 Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP): Y The wireless routing protocol (WRP) is related to DSDV. ¥ — Inorder to enable faster convergence, WRP employs an exclusive method of maintaining information about the shortest distance to all destination nodes in the network and the penultimate hop node on the path to all destination nodes. ¥ Since it maintains the updated view of the topology, every node has a readily available route to all destination nodes in the network. WRP uses a set of tables to retain more precise information. v The tables that are maintained by a node are the following: 1, Distance Table (DT): ‘The DY contains the network view of the neighbors of a node and it contaits a matrix where each element contains the dist * ed ance and the penultimate node report by a neighbor for a particular destination,y » Routing Protocols and Transport Lay ver in AD HOC Wireless Networks # 3.1 1 Routing Table (RT); The RT contains the up-to-date view of the network for all known destinations. naintains the shortest dista ‘nee, the predecessor node (penultimate node), the ‘or node (the next node to reach the destination) of the path. The path status! um and a flag representing the may bea simple path (correct) or a loop (error) or ihe destination node not marked (null), 3. Link Cost Table(LCT): The cost of relaying messages through each link is maintained in the LCT. The cost of a broken link is“. It also contains the number of update periods accepted since the recent successful update was received from that link. This is done to identify link breaks. 4, Message Retransmission List (MRL): Y ThelMRL contains an entry for each update message that is to be retransmitted and maintains a count for each entry. This co +t is decremented after every retransmission of an update message. Each update message contains a list of updates. Y Bach node in the RT that has to acknowledge the update message it transmitted is also marked by the node. The entries in the update messages without acknowledgements will be retransmitted when the counter reaches zero. The convergence in WRP is faster compared to DSDY, since the node updates both the distance of neighbor and the other neighbors’ distance. The source node in the network is node | and the destination node is node 15 inthe figure 3.6, WRP maintains the readily available routes from the source node ‘othe destination node, ‘The path from node | to node 15 has the next node as node 31s shown in the figure 3.6. The predecessor of node 15 in this route is node 12 and ‘lo this information makes WRP to converge rapidly during path breaks.SourcelD Figure 3.6 Route Establishment in WRP ee The link cost for the broken link is assigned to_co _whenever a node identifie, @ path break by sending an update message to its neighbors, Y As soon as the update message is received, the least distances Of the affecteg node is updated to the corresponding nodes, ¥ — The alternative route is identified from the DT by the node that has started the (update message, v~ WRP ensures that the new route formulated does not contain the broken link alternative route to the destination node 15, they update their routing tables and Specify the modified route to their neighbors by transmitting an update message.A neighbor node, on reception of an update message, informs its routing table only the new path is better than the existing paths, . - aeProtocols and Tr¢ y Rouins MADOC | 8 Net por exi mple, when node 12 fina nds an update mess ae ‘nother path to the destination through node ‘ge indicating the new rom node 12, neighboring nodes!g ™ corres! i. oe) suing entry corresponding to destination 15 nl 5 path. After receiving the update 14, 15, and 19 do not modify their While (node 4 and node 10 change «entries to replicate the heir entries 10 replicate the new updated path, Nodes 4 and 10 again broadcast an emes ate apadate ! the correct path to the destination for their own neighbors. node 10 receives node 4’s upd: age to indie: whe 'S Update message, it again revises its routing entry fo optimize the path to the destination node (15) while node 4 rejects the new entry ved from node 10. 7 itroce’l Routing Entry at each Node for DestinationID 15 DestinationID Dest Nex! Node} Dist [Sea 15 15] 15]0 14 15 | 14] 5 13 1S | 13] 2 12 15_| 13] 5 ul 14 | 14/8 wolf 4 [lo 9 13, | 13] 12 gs] 2 [ale 7{ 3 [iu 6 | to [13[16 s [to [13fi4 4|{_ 2 [3/8 3 | 4 [3{u 2 4 13] 12 SourcelD 1] 2 [is fis Figure 3.7 Route Maintenance in WRP Advantages: Convergence is quick compared to DSDV. The table updates are les4 Ad hoc and Sensor Nery, orks Ivantages: It requires large memory and processing power since it maintains muty "De tables mie and large ad hoe wireless netwoy., KS ay dyn pdating tables is very high. ¥ — Itis not suitable for hight: the control overhead 3.4.3 Cluster-Head Gateway Switch Routing Protocol (CGSR). Switch Routing protocol (CGSR) uses a hierar i d Gatewa Lf The Cluster-he: network topolog: CGSR categorizes nodes into clusters, with coordination between the member, v of each cluster assigned to a special node named cluster head. The cluster-head is chosen dynamically by using a Least Cluster Change (L¢¢, algorithm. Y Based on LCC algorithm, a node stops to be a cluster head only when it moves to the transmission range of another cluster-head, either lowest ID or highest connectivity algorithm is used to break the link. Y _Reusability ean be improved by clustering which offers a mechanism to allocate bandwidth among different clusters. Y It allows the cluster-head to afford better coordination among the nodes tha comes under its cluster, since all the members of a cluster can be reached by the cluster-head in/one hop. at ¥ CGSR makes an assumption that all communication happens through the cluster head. ; ¥ The common member nodes are the nodes which are members of both the clusters and they enable the communication between two clusters. The gateway nodes are the nodes that are members of more than one cluster. ¥ — The routing protocol used in CGSR is an extension of DSDV. ¥ — The routing table maintained at each member node contains the destination cluster-head for each node in the network. It is also called as cluster member table.9 Routing Protocols and Transport Layer in AD HOC Wireless Networks # [3.15 vy _ norder to update the list of next-hop nodes to reach each destination cluster, cach node maintains a routing table apart from the cluster member table. y Whenever a node wants to transmit packets to a destination, it obtains the token from its corresponding cluster-head. Then it gets the destination cluster- head from the cluster member table and the next hop node from the routing table. y¥__ The routing performance of CGSR can be improved by transmitting packets through the cluster-heads and gateways. v_ For example, the path from node A to node B will be like this: A” CI “ G1 * C2 “G2 “...Ci * Gj...Gn “ B, where Gi and Cj are the ith gateway and the jth cluster-head in the path, E© Cluster Member Node @Bctuster—ead C)Ctuster Gerway Figure 3.8 Route Establishment in CGSR The cluster heads, cluster gateways and normal cluster member nodes in an ad hoc wireless network are shown in figure 3.8. A path between node 11 and node 16 will be through the nodes I1 - 6-12 -5- 16.4 Ad hoc and Sensor N actors that impose route reconfiguration are a. Change in cluster-hend b. Stale entries in the cluster member table and routing table CGSR relies on the table update method to handle the out-of-date enryi, the table and the Least Cluster Change (LCC) algorithm handles the chang, i cluster-head. Advantages: Y It provides better bandwidth utilization. “I is easy to implement priority scheduling schemes with token Scheduling and gateway code scheduling. Disadvantages: Y Increase in path length and instability in the system at high mobility when the rate of change of cluster-heads is high. The battery-draining rate at the cluster-head is higher than the rate at a normal v node. This could lead to frequent changes in the cluster-head, which in tum result in multiple path breaks. 3.4.4 Source-Tree Adaptive Routing Protocol (STAR): Source-Tree Adaptive Routing protocol (STAR) is a variant of table-driven routing protocols, with the Least Overhead Routing Approach (LORA) as the cor: concept rather than the Optimum Routing Approach (ORA) that was used by earlier table-driven routing protocols. Each node transmits its source tree information in STAR protocol v ¥ — The node uses wireless links that present in its source-tree within its ideal path to destinations. ¥ — The partial graph of the topology is constructed by each node, using the adjacent links and the source-tree broadcast by its neighbors. ¥ — The node transmits an update message to its neighbor nodes at the time of initialization,srotocols and Tran, , Profoce Sport Layey ——___” er in AD 10K Wireless Network <6 fz.17) with information such as new > must broaden lt node must broadcast oy uy Pdate message qinations, the possibilities age os of rout a ya given threshold Ng loops and the cost of paths greater than! ofore. every node h : perel has a path to every destinat ee th qvould be sub-optimal, lation node and moreover pal » absence of a reliable 1j n the ink layer broades rie aaa ‘ig approach to find a path, roadeast method, STAR uses th wind when a source node S has data packets i tot i ° A ete the path is not ransmit to destination node D. for available in its : saeco Source-tree, it sends an update me wots neighbors signifying the absence of a path to D. TI ’ generates another update message from a neighbor that h which his update message as a path to D. te Message : The wpa ge from node $ is retransmitted with increasing intervals petween consecutive retransmissions, until it gets a path to D The node updates its source-tree information as soon as the source-tree update received from a neighbor and using this information, it identifies a path to all other nodes in the network. y The likelihood of routing loop formation is avoided using information about the path to be traversed that exists in the data packet. With the existence of a reliable broadcast mechanism, STAR presumes implicit route maintenance. If the path to a destination does not exists for a node, then an update message is generated by the corresponding node, which in turn activates an update message from a neighbor that has an alternate source tree representing an alternate next-hop node to the destination. Apart from path breaks, the intermediate nodes are responsible to handle the routing loops. YA RouteRepair update message is transmitted to the node in the head of the route repair path after discarding the packet since an intermediate node receives a data packet to destination in the packet’s traversed path. The information about complete source tree of node and the traversed path of the packet are available in the RouteRepair packet. An intermediate node is removed from top of the route repair path by itself and transmits it to the head of the route repair path whenever it receives a RouteRepair update message.4 Ad hoc and Sensor Nop . [a] Advantages: Compared to other table-driven touting protocol STAR has yg, "Y Io, communication overhead " lable-driven routing protocol uses LORA approach to minimize the 4 control overhead. 3.4.5 Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR): The Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocol is a proact protocol that uses an efficient link state packet forwarding methog calleg in, multipoint relaying. Optimizations can be done in two ways: v 1. By reducing the size of the control packets 2. By reducing the number of links for forwarding the link state packe,, ¥ Periodic link state update is made possible by employing multipoint relayi., in the optimization. ¥ During link breaks or link establishments, the control packets are not initiates by the link state update mechanism. ¥ In highly dense networks, the link state update optimization attains bette, efficiency. ¥ The number of message transmissions is approximately equal to the number of nodes that constitute the network. v — MPRset is a set which contains nodes that are multipoint relays. ¥ — Each node (say, P) in the network selects an MPRset that processes and forwards every link state packet that node P initiates. ¥ The neighbor nodes that do not belong to the MPRset process the link state packets originated by node P but do not forward them.iw rotocols and Transpory 1 ing? Abset of ne ghbors of node ay rin AD HOC Wy; i AD Hoc Wireless Networks & mERD) pr selecto nd it is maintained at each poi. The packets are forwarded by the nodes if : Sif they a a mong tits MPRSclector se, Y are received from nodes qhe members of both MPRset and MPRSelectors keep varying over time Bach node that is in two hop neighbothood which has bidirectional link with the node is chosen as the members of the MPRset of a node. The nodes that are in single hop neighborhood are updated periodically by each node with its MPRSelector set, To choose the members of the node in the MPRset, a node periodically sends Hello messages that contain the list of neighbors. Upon receiving the Hello packet, the nodes update their own two-hop topology tables. The Hello packet also contains the information about the multipoint relay selection. The information such as the list of neighbors, the two-hop neighbors and the status of neighbor nodes are maintained in the neighbor table. The possible link states of the neighbor nodes are 1. Unidirectional 2. Bidirectional 3. Multipoint relay The stale entries in the neighbor table are removed when the time out value of the corresponding entry gets expired. Each MPRset is assigned with a sequence number which is inevemented with cach new MPRset.Node 4 selects MPRset < 2,3,10,12: Network Link ) Flooding the network takes as many Jode beloning to MPRset of Node 4 missions as the number of node @ ose veioning . Broadcast packets forwarded by members of Mp, the entire network with six n using MPR scheme Figure 3.8 An example selection of MPRset in OLSR ¥ The efficiency of the protocol is high when compared to link state routing jp the number of nodes in the MPRset are less. ¥ The routing table is updated periodically by each node with the Topolog, Control (TC) packets which has information about the topology. vIn addition to topology information, the TC packets contains the MPRSelecto; set of al] the nodes in the network and are broadcast throughout the network using the multipoint relaying mechanism. v¥ — The topology table at each node is constructed based on the information received by several nodes’ TC packets in the network. v¥ An entry in the topology table contains a destination node which is the MPRSelector and a last-hop node to that destination, which is the node that generates the TC packet. Thus the routing table maintains routes to all the nodes in the network.Pre cols an Tanspoy, pout Protocols and Transpoyy Layer vi ’ NAD HOC Wireless Networks & 3.21 ion of Multipoint Relay Nodeg, St porwarding of TC packets using the MPR¢e 1). Here node 4 selec! MPRset of b). S the nodes 2,3, 10. and | the TC packets reach node 4 is illustrated in figure 2-as members of its MPRset. in the Network that ‘ade possible using th Whenever a node identifies a new bi its two-hop neighborhood or a bidirectj gets updated. sal all the nodes oe neighborhood of node is m; are within the two hop le nodes 2, 3, 10, and 12. Ctional link in its neighborhood or in ‘onal link break, the MPRset of a node advantages? / Itreduces the number of broadcasts and the routing overhead. The connection setup time is low, The control overhead is reduced. 346 Fisheye State Routing Protocol (FSR): Y The routing overhead increases with the increase in the number of senders in the network. ’ The fisheye state routing (FSR) protocol is a generalization of the GSR protocol. Region of one = hop scope + Region of two - hop scope Figure 3.9 Fisheye State Routing4 Ad hoc and Sensor Networg, ks 4 FSR uses the fisheye technique to reduce information needed to repres, SR us ’ m4 graphical data, in order to minimize routing overhead y concept in FSR is the property of a fish’s eye that can capture Pixe| cy near its eye’s focal point. The ke: information with better accut ‘An inerease in the distance from the center of the focal point reduces accuracy Th maintaining accurate information about nodes so-accurate information about far-away nodes, the accuracy of the Network nad hoe wireless networks by a node property is interpreted to routing i in its local topology and nop. information decreasing with increasing distance. The topology of the network is maintained at each node by transmitting topology information only to its neighbors. The recent topology updates in the network is recognized using the sequence numbering scheme. It defines routing scope, which is the group of nodes that are accessible ina specific number of hops. The scope of a node at two hops is the set of nodes that can be reached in two hops. ‘Topology Information at Node 3 Desi] Neighbor] Tops 1 (3,4) 1 2 {3} 1 ‘Topology Information 3 }(24) | 0 at Node 4 4 {13} | 1 [Dest] Neighbor] Hops ry Ba) [1 / / / 3] 24) ] 1 a | es} [oo ‘Topology Information 2TH 12 at Node 2 Dest] Neighbor] Hops} 3 1 3 1 Topology Information ! Gay] 2 at Node | 4 3} | 2 Dest] Neighbor] Hops} 1 {3,4} 0 (12,4) Figure 3.10 An illustration of Routing Tables in FSR.¢ Protocols and Trans; pouting P10 Transport Layer in py HOC Wi par : ‘ireless Networks & - employing different fr ‘ : ‘orks 3.23, / Bye ee . frequencies Of updates f the routing over head is minimized es for nodes of different scopes, the link ate information for the nodes bel - ‘Ss belon exchanged at the maximum frequency Ce nee ee maine oe = the scope increases the fr y_ Asthe scope increases the frequency of exchanges d The node contains accurate tbpdlony ges decrease. neighbors. information about the single hop The node contains not-so-accurate i v 2 ‘ate information fc i ince i have stale information. ‘or a distant node since it may to decrease in routi ae in routing overhead, FSR is suitable for large ad hoc wireless networks. Y_ The network topology information maintained at nodes in a network is shown in figure 3.10. The routing information for the nodes that are one hop away from a node is broadcast more frequently than the routing information about nodes that are more than one hop away. ¥ Information about the nodes that are more than one hop distance from the current node is listed below the dotted line in the topology table. Advantages: ’ The bandwidth used by link state update packets are minimized by FSR that uses the concept of multi-level scopes. “Large and highly mobile ad hoc wireless networks prefer FSR. Disadvantages: ‘ed with each scope level has a major ’ The choice of the quantity of hops relat tocol at different mobility values. influence on the performance of the prot 3.47 Hierarchical State Routing Protocol (HSR): ‘otocol is a distributed multi-level Justering at different levels with ’ The Hierarchical State Routing (HR) Pr hierarchical routing protocol that uses cl efficient membership management at ¢ sh level of clustering. ed by the use of clustering, The resource allocation and management IS enhanes< Sn ee 4 Ad hoe and Sensor Netwoyy ky 4 HSR funetions by organizing different levels of clusters. Selected leaders at each level form the members at the next higher leye, The first level of physical clustering is made among the nodes that are in single hop distance. al clustering is made among the nodes that are The next higher level of phy selected as leaders of each of these first-level clusters. Based on certain relations among the nodes, a logical clustering Scheme has been proposed in HSR. The multilayer clustering defined by the HSR is shown in figure 3.11 At the lowest level (L = 0), there are six cluster leaders (nodes 1, 2, 3, 4,5, and 6). Nodes are categorized as cluster leaders, gateway nodes or normal member nodes. The following are the responsibilities of a cluster leader are Slot/Frequency/Code Allocation Call Admission Control Scheduling of Packet Transmissions Exchange of Routing Information Handling Route Breaks The node 5 is a cluster head marked as LO-5, which refers to the level of clustering (L = 0) and node ID (5). For the nodes under the leadership of node 6 at level 0, the cluster members are nodes 9, 10, 11, 12 and 17. The nodes that belong to multiple clusters are known as cluster gateway nodes. For the level 0 cluster whose leader is node 6, the cluster gateways are nodes 10, 12 and 17. The second level of clustering is done among the leaders of the first level, that is, the leaders of Oth level clusters, LO - 1, LO - 2, LO - 3,L0- 4, LO- 5, and LO - 6, form the members of the first-level cluster. v v Each node holds information about all its neighbors and the status of links to each of them. The information at each node is transmitted within the cluster periodically. The next higher level clustering is done by cluster leader by transmitting the le routing information among the member nodes in the topology and link sta neighborhood clusters,oni Protocols and Transport Layey in ’ AD HOC Wireless Networks 3.25 rhe virtual link isa path betwee en two clust cluste Jess links. t-heads that is formed by several wire rhe path between first-level chis I e LU ~6 and L1 - 4 consists of the wireless din figure 3.11 inks 6 - 12-5 - 16-4 is illustrate phe clustering is performed recursively to the h y to the higher levels atany level, the cluster leader e cader exchanges topology information with its peers Every node obtains the hierarchi cal topology information f i A aa forma through broadcast, after receiving the ieee sheniaherieess ee : a Tom its peers. the hierarchical addressing defined i ine i i i tit node ID. din HSR contains the hierarchical ID (HID) The HID is a sequence of IDs i: of clust 2 ed eee er leaders of all levels starting from the d +h node maintai i Each : maintains : HSR table which contains the hierarchical addresses representing the node’s own position in the hierarchy. % eee routing update packets are received by the node, the HSR table is updated. Level =3 Level Level =I | | | | | Level=0 | (Physical "| el) | | | Figure 3.11 Example of USK Multi-level Clustering‘ 6 Ad hoe and Sensor Netiyoy, a) 26 The hi . eo is <6, The hierarchical address of node int Sa node IDs of the cluste (11) is the node 1D and the remaining consists of the T leader, 6, 6, 6, 11 >, where the last entr ¥ , ierarchy. Similarly, the HID o : that represent the location of node I in the hierarchy. Similarly, IID o F node 4 is <6, 4, 4,4>, When node 11 requires to transmit a packet to node 4, the Packet i. forwarded to the highest node in the hierarchy (node 6). Node 6 sends the packey,, node 4, which is at the top-most level of the hierarchy. Advantages: Y With the hierarchy information, the size of the routing table is teduced jn HSR protocol. Disadvantages: Y The overhead involved in exchanging packets holding the information regarding multiple levels of hierarchy make the protocol unaffordable in the ad hoc wireless networks. ¥ The leader election process makes the protocol unaffordable in the ad hoe wireless networks context. Y The hierarchy of routing presumes significance in the military applications of ad hoc wireless networks, where devices with higher potential of communication can act as the cluster leaders. 3.4.8 Global State Routing (GSR): ¥ Global State Routing (GSR) is a uniform, topology-oriented, proactive routing protocol, ¥ — Itis a variant of traditional link - state protocols In GSR every node broadcast the link-state information to all other nodes Present in the network whenever its connectivity changed. Y — Global State Routing (GSR) is similar to DSDy,Re g Protocols and Transport Levey jn ibe : : . C Wh put = ; veleey Nonwavbe © Al sding of routing meses [3.27] flooding RES Ate AvOided in Gg sllowing table: 1 7 qhe following les are Maintained at ; each node Neighbor List ? qopology Table Next Hop Table pistance Table lists i in GSR, the lists of neighbor nodes are Maintained by the neighbor list of # node. : Topology table includes the link State inform: — . ation as intimated by the destination and the timestamp of the information in each destination node. ror cach destination, the For ¢ ae Next Hop table has the next hop to which the packets for this destination must be forwarded. The shortest distance to each destination node is maintained in the Distance table. Similar to link state protocols, the change in a link triggers the routing messages. After receiving a routing message, the node updates its Topology table if the sequence number of the message is greater than the sequence number stored in the table. The node rebuilds its routing table and floods the information to its neighbors, following the update in the routing table. After this the node reconstructs its routing table and broadcasts the information to its neighbors, 4.5 REACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS: On-demand (Reactive) routing protocols perform the path-finding process and change routing information only when a path is required by a node to communicate With a destination,4 Ad hoe and Sensor 3.5.1 Dynamic Source Routing Protocol 1 (DSR): protocol (DSR) is an on-demand protocol deg; Signed Dynamic Source Routing y control packets in ad hoe wireless networks, to limit the bandwidth consumed t . the table-drivena eliminating the periodic table-update messages required in en approach, v The key concept of reactive routing protocol during the route Construction, phasc is to establish a route by flooding RouteRequest packets in the Network yY After the reception of a RouteRequest packet, the destination replies by transmitting a RouteReply packet to the source which contains the TOUte traversed by the RouteRequest packet. YA RouteRequest packet is generated by the source node, if it has data packet; to send but does not have a route to the destination. Y The RouteRequest packet is broadcast to all the nodes in the network. Y The nodes that receive the RouteRequest packet, rebroadcasts the same packets to its neighbors if it has not forwarded it earlier. VY Each RouteRequest contains a sequence number generated by the source node and the path it has traversed. v¥ Each node verifies the sequence number specified in the RouteRequest packet before forwarding it. The packet is forwarded only if it is not a duplicate RouteRequest. In order to prevent loop formations and to avoid multiple transmissions of the same RouteRequest by an intermediate node, the sequence number is used. ¥ During route construction phase, all the nodes in the network except the destination forward a RouteRequest packet. ¥ Upon receiving the first RouteRequest packet, the destination responds to the source node through the reverse path the RouteRequest packet had traversed. Source node | generates a RouteRequest packet to find a path to the destination node 15 i Ilustrated in figure 3.12.ayer te 3-7-9-13-17 I-15 6-10-11 14-15 Path3 : Sourcel D Figure 3.12 Route Establishment in DSR Optimizations: ¥ With an aim to improve the performance of DSR Protocol, various optimization techniques have been implemented into the basic DSR. ¥ DSR uses the route cache at intermediate nodes which contains routes. ‘The routes in the route cache are obtained from the information specified in the data packets. On receiving a RouteRequest packet, the intermediate nodes that has route to the destination replies the source node by using the cache information. ’ By operating in the promiscuous mode, an intermediate node learns about route breaks. ‘The route cache is updated with the information obtained about route breaks and it is used to ensure that the active routes maintained in the route cache does not use broken links. iu The affected nodes generate RouteRequest packets during network partitions. v Ifthe destination is in a different disjoint set, an exponential backoff algorithm i ati eReques Jcast in the network. 'Semployed in order to avoid frequent RouteRequest broadeAd hoc and Sensor Networ a0 4 Ad hoc a or Networks — a DSR provides a mechanism to send data packets along with RouteReque called pigay-backing v The route construction phase in DSR is very simple, if it does not alloy, optimization As shown in figure 3.12, after receiving the RouteRequest packet from nodg 1, all its neighboring nodes, 2, 5 and 6, forward it. Node 4 receives the RouteReques, from both nodes 2 and 5. Node 4 forwards the first RouteRequest it receives fron, any one of the nodes 2 and 5 and discards the other duplicate RouteRequest packets DestinationID Network Line —_———— Selected path _———> RouteError — Broken Link SourcelD Figure 3.13 Route Maintenance in DSR Ifa link breaks due to the intermediate node’s movement as shown in figure 3.13, ie, the link between nodes 12 and 5, the nodes adjacent to the broken link initiates a RouteError message to notify the source node. Then the source node, reinitiates the route establishment procedure. On receiving the RouteError message, the cached entries at the intermediate nodes and the source node are removed. When an edge node in the path moves away, causing a link break (nodes ! and 15), the source node reinitiates the route discovery process.jg protocols and Transport Layep j aa AD + ny LOC Wireless Networks 6 [z. 31] ante \ . ajiminates the periodic megs. yell rie Message broadcast i soute 1S established only when jt is required n the network and instead a a ired ape route cache information j i the re tion is utilized efficiently at the i fi { Y at the intermediate nodes as to minimize the contr go as te control overhead, advent Bes: pi The route maintenance mech; anism in DSR. : pe repaired locally + does not allow a broken link to ri! e route r i During th reconstruction phase, the stale route cache information could cause inconsistencies. The connection setup delay is higher compared to table- griven protocols. , The performance degrades in high mobility environments. / The source-routing mechanism used in DSR could result in routing overhead which is directly proportional to the path length. 45.2 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance-Vector Routing Protocol: ¥ In Adhoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol, the route is identified using an on-demand approach, that is, the route is created only when it is required. ’ It makes use of destination sequence numbers to find the most recent path. ’ DSRuses source routing mechanism where as in AODY, the source node and the intermediate nodes store the next-hop information related to each flow for data packet transmission. 1 ’ Ifthe source node does not have a path to the corresponding destination, it broadcasts the RouteRequest packet in the network. . By sending a single RouteRequest, the source node is able to acquire several Toutes to various destinations. Only if the DestSeqNum of the current packet is greater than the | the path information of the node is updated. last DestSeqNum stored at the node,4 Ad hoc and Sensor Nery, 7 —_— rk [332] a : venneas of the route that is acknowledyeg > Y — DestSeqNum signifies the freshne h key source ‘A RouteRequest carries the following fields 1. Souree Identifier (SrelD) 2 Destination Identifier (Dest1D) ee Number (SreSeqNum) 3. Souree Sequen| 4. Destination Sequence Number (DestSeqNum) 5. Broadeast Identifier (BeastID) 6. Time To Live (TTL) ee diate node has a valid route to the destination, it respong, , otherwise it forwards the RouteReques termediate node with y, Y If an interme sending a RouteReply message, By comparing the sequence number at the in - DestSeqNum in the RouteRequest packet, the validity of a route at the intermediate node is decided. i Y The duplicate copies of a RouteRequest is identified by the BeastID-Srojp pair and removed. Y A timer is used to delete this entry in case a RouteReply is not received befor, the timer expires. Y With the usage of timer, AODV stores an active path at the intermediate node, v When a node receives a RouteReply packet, information about the previous node from which the packet was received is also stored in order to forward the data packet to this next node as the next hop toward the destination. In figure 3.14, source node 1 originates a path-finding process by sending: RouteRequest to be broadcast in the network for destination node 15, with an assumption that the RouteRequest contains the destination sequence number as 3 and the source sequence number as 1. When nodes 2, 5 and 6 receive the RouteRequest packet, they check their routes to the destination. In case a route to | the destination is not available, they further forward it to their neighbors. Here | nodes 3, 4 and 10 are the neighbors of nodes 2, 5 and 6. Assuming that intermediate nodes 3 and 10 already have routes to the destination node, that is, node 15 through paths 10-14-15 and 3-7-9-13-15. If the destination sequence number at intermediate node 10 is 4 and is | at intermediate node 3, then only node 10 is allowed to replyvy , is and Transport . rot000 1d Transport Layer in AD HOC Wi ireless Network: sé 33 re ached route to the source, ‘T! ye cae source. This is This is because node 3 has an older route t e © has an old ute to atl 2 “ compared to the route available 3 atthe af oF he soure a node 3 is 1, but the destination seq rce node (the destination sequence Sequence number is 3 at the source node). a ode), et ai 10 has a more rei . C as a cent re C nile node route (the destination sequ sequence number is 4) to the jon. If ae ae reaches the destination any other alternative route, the destination is nna? 15) through path 4- In ins ase Tinga Rowekenly packets ie coum All : je ing a jurce. the at = oo pda theirroute tables withthe latest ne er routing information if it leads DestinationID in sor al gered ination spashorter Network Link — RouteReply Pathl : 1-5-10-14-15 Cached Path2 ; 1-5-10-14-15 SourcelD Figure 3.14 Route Establishment in AODV a. | AODV does not repair a broken path locally. When a link breaks, the end nodes (i.e, source and destination nodes) are notified, ‘ ath break, it reestablishes the route to Wh en a source node learns about the p th ee a a destination if required by the higher layers. @ path break is detected at an intermediate node, Node: r, les by sending an unsolicited Route the node informs the end Reply with the hop count set as“.amy, 4 Ad hoe and Sensor y, 4 Faure 5 15 r= - : ee va woes 4 anid S ae deP svity their ened NOES Featring When o path Drewle Bereee! preeceangrere 00 Me . i. ig entries From their tableg thy © sen. the Hodee sitions RewmePtror edi Hiren. The end nodes delete the eorreepone mowers with che Rew ReastID and the Pret Kode teinitintee the path finding Pree tevin, deetinution exquence tothe DeeevearientD Network Link ——7 Route for 1->15 RouteError — Broken Link SoureelD Figure 3.15 Route Maintenance in AODV Advantages: The routes are established on demand and destination sequence numbers ar v used to find the latest route to the destination. ¥ The connection setup delay is less. Disadvantages: ¥ — The stale entries at the intermediate nodes could result in inconsistent routes It has considerable control overhead if several RouteReply packets v generated for a single RouteRequest, ¥ Bandwidth consumption is high due to periodic beaconing.jativity-B: ased Routin, 2 (ABR) ee Protocol j i ee ae stably of fe adistributed routing protocol \¢ wireless links. Assoe thal jis? beacon-based on-demand routing Protocol loco! 5 the tempo! li i . ased 0” poral stability ofa link, itis categorized as a stabli bl sink. astable or unstable ing the periodic b By counting the p lic beacons that a nod i ili 2 le receives from i i temporal stability of a link is determined. rom its neighbors, the qhe lnk related to a stable neighbors referred as a stable link, whereas & link to an unstable neighbor is referred as an unstable link. fa source node does not have a route to destination in its route cache, then it proadcasts the RouteRequest packets to all the nodes in the network. similarly all the intermediate nodes that receive the RouteRequest packet, forwards it. ARouteRequest packet contains the path it has traversed and the beacon count for the corresponding node in the path. . the destination, the destination waits When the first RouteRequest reache: t multiple RouteRequests from for a time period TRouteSelectTime to ge different paths. After this time duration, the path links is selected by the destination. rtion of stable links, that has the maximum proportion of stable If two paths have the same propo! the shorter of them is selected. Ifmore than one shortest path is avail selected as the path between source and destination. The source node (node 1) sends the : . "Oute to the destination node (node 15). It uses stability information only during teroute selection process atthe destination ode, As ilustrated in Figure 3.16, the RouteRequest reaches the destination through three different routes. Route 1 is lable, then @ random path among them is RouteRequest to be flooded for finding a~ 4 Ad hoc and Sensor Ne, a een Ne Rociyy [336] 4-12-15, and route 3 is 1-2-4-8-13-15. ABR chon 1-5 ple links compared to rouse 4 1-5-10-14-15, route 2 is route 3 as it consists of highest percentage of ° route 2. ABR provides more priority to stable routes than to shorter routes. Therag. en even though the length of the chosen route is more than thay ofr route 3 is che other two rou Destination D Unstable Links aamray Rowtareqagse Selected Path: 1-2-4-8-13-15 SourcelD Figure 3.16 Route Establishment in ABR Ifa link break occurs at an intermediate node, the node closer to the source, which detects the break, initiate a local route repair process. ¥ Whenever the link break occurs at an intermediate node, a local route repai Process is initiated by the node closer to the source which detects the link break. The node broadcasts a local route repair packet known as Local Query (LQ) Y with a limited Time to Live (TTL). Y Without broadcasting a new RouteRequest packet throughout the network, a broken link is bypassed locally by using LQ. ¥ — The LQ broadcast is reinitiated by a node’s uplink node (the previous node in the path which is nearer to the source node) if it fails to repair a link break. v The route repair process persists along the intermediate nodes toward the source node until it traverses half the length of the broken path or the route is repaired.vy ins Unstable Links >= Path from 1>15 aaa local Query ees : RouteReply — Broken Link New Path from | to 15: 1-2-4-12-15 sourcelD Figure 3.17 Route Maintenance in ABR When a path break occurs between nodes 8 and 13, the node adjacent to the sroken link toward the source node 8, initiates a local query broadcast to repair the roken path locally. The local query has limited scope with the maximum TTL value set to the remaining path length from the broken link to the destination. The token path is repaired locally by bypassing the path segment 8-13-15 through segment 8-12-15 as shown in figure 3.17. Advantages: ’ Higher preference is given to the stable routes in ABR than shorter routes. This causes fewer link breaks that leads to reduction in the scope of flooding due to reconfiguration of paths in the network. Disadvantages: ’ Asthe preference is given to the stable paths the selected path may be longer than the shortest path. Repetitive LQ broadcasts may cause high delays in route repairs.4 Ad hoe and Sensor joy y i$ Ae Wop, Se ee tive Routing Protocol (Ssq) 3.5.4 Signal Stability-Based Adap' otocol (SSA) is an on, puting Pt . ‘| : tive r¢ : ¥ Signal Stability-based Adaptive Te anal stability as the key fa.°™ny routing protocol that make Use O lor 2 i identifying stable routes i ility i a stability is d ¥ tise beacon-hased_ protocol where (he.linlk 1S determingy ', rhe beacon. y calculating the signal strength of the be a Y Based on the signal strength, @ link is classified as sta UNStable, Thi protocol has two parts: 1, | Forwarding Protocol (FP) 2. Dynamic Routing Protocol (DRP) Both FP and DRP protocols use an extended radio interface that Measures 1, v signal strength from beacons. ¥ —_DRP maintains the routing table by interacting with the DRP processes other hosts. Y FP executes the actual routing to forward a packet on its way to the destination Y The information about the beacon count and the signal strength of the neighbo,, are stored in a table at each node. Y A link is said to be stable/strong link, if the node receives strong beacons fo, the past few beacons. y Each node maintains a table called the Signal Stability Table (SST), whichis based on the signal strengths of its neighbors’ beacons. ¥ In order to find the stable end-to-end path, the SST table is used by the nodes in the path to the destination to forward the incoming RouteRequest over strong links. Y If the effort of forwarding a RouteRequest over the stable links fails to obtain any path to a destination, the protocol floods the RouteRequest throughout the network without considering the stability of links as the forwarding criterion. v If the source node does not have a route to the destination, then it initiates? RouteRequest packet and floods it throughout the network. ¥ The node processes a RouteRequest only if it is received through a strons link., Protocols and 7 Roy AD HOC wy, he nodes that employ the gga jy, — 1 oceived through a strong figy. "°°! process ss Networks 3.39 RouteRequest only if it is A RouteRequest received throug ha weg sed. 4 Weak link is dise proc arded without being The destination selects the first R jinks and then responds by se route to the source, OuteRequest : Packet received over strong aRouteReply ding Packet to indicate the selected Stable links ———_> RouteReply ——— > RouteRequest SourceID Figure 3.18 Route Establishment in SSA The RouteRequest forwarded by node 2 is dropped by nodes 3 and as walle wode 4 forwards it to its neighbors, provided it has not already been forwar - Thus, nodes forward the RouteRequest until it reaches the aie RouteRequest broadcast through path 1-5-10-14-15 is eared tl _ me ‘itreceives a RouteRequest from node 14 ona weak Une he = al ere oe OTsttong links is 1-2 (or 5)-4-8-13-15. The first RouteRequest P te destination over a stable path is selected by the destination.. and Sensor Ne Wo, rks ‘ 4 Ad ho ink nodes 2 e end nodes of the broken : nodes | and 15). On rece; 4) When a link breaks. 1 : 2 ent ne path (1 e+ ie ode reinitiates the RouteReg West 5, Anodes of tl ¢ source 1 n, Stale ent 1 to reach and 4 breaks, @ new strong path is establishs, sc available when a link gets broken (g : "by considering weak Tinks also. This, Is fail to find @ path to the destinati,, on correspondin} ation packet. th destinatio’ {information fai indicate the are discarded only ; yi F data ak notifier the next node. a route br able path to the find another sta packets that use the stale route tween nodes 2 15. Ifno strong path route is establishes ttempts If the link be through 1-5-4-8-13- link 8-13), then the new done when several RouteRequest 4 using only the stable links. DestinationID _ Stable links Unstable Links _—__—_— Existing Path --- > Reestablished Path Route Break Notification Packet — Broken Line SourcelD Figure 3.19 Route Maintenance in SSA Advantages: ¥ — When com, pared to DS: R and AODY, SSA obtains stable routes rather than shorter routes, v¥ It achieves temporal stabili ity by i table ofunstable. y by using beacon counts to categorize a linksng Preecets and Transport Lay ole pe! ’ rin AD , MOC Wiretess gases: 2 is Networks 4 [3.41] 0 7 rhe path setup time is high, ajo bandwidth consumption j phe bar so figs Bh due to broade: i ast of RouteRequest packets: ast of RouteRequ' spe strong links criterion increg e he stt Teases the pa ath length, ass Flow Oriented Routing Protocol (FoRp), -Oriented Routi | flow-Ori tke HE Frofocdl (FORPY isa oh-demanid routing protocol that uses a prediction-based multi-hop-handoff mechanism for supporting time- sensitive traffic in ad hoc wireless networks. ; y__ Ithas been proposed for IPv6-based ad hoc wireless networks to offer quality of service (QoS). y The multi-hop-handoff is aimed at improving the effects of path breaks on the real-time packet flows. By identifying a link break, a source node or intermediate node originates the route maintenance process which may cause high packet loss, leading to a low QoS. ¥ FORP employs a unique prediction-based mechanism that uses the mobility and location information of nodes to estimate the Link Expiration Time (LET). Y LET is the approximate lifetime of a given wireless link. The minimum of the LET values of all wireless links on a path is known as the Route Expiry Time (RET). ’ Each node predicts the LET of each of its links with its neighbor nodes. ’ The information such as current position of the nodes, direction of movement and transmission ranges is used to calculate the LET between two nodes. v The node’s location is obtained from the GPS.> 4 Ad hoc and Sensor Nery, Oke 3.42 ¥ Ifa source node requires establishing a real-time flow to a destination, routing table is referred to check the availability of a route to that destina tion ¥ Ia route is available, then that is used to send packets to the destinatig, : ¥ Ifa route is not available, the sender floods Flow-REQ packet which con,: ie information about the source, destination nodes, flow identification Ara ber, sequence number which is unique for every session. “On receiving the Flow-REQ packet, a neighbor node verifies if the sequen, number is greater than the sequence number corresponding to a packet g, lat had forwarded previously by the node. ¥ Aneighbor node, on receiving this packet, first checks if the sequence num, of the received Flow-REQ is higher than the sequence number correspondiny to a packet belonging to the same session that had been previously forwardeg by the node. If the sequence number on the packet is greater than that of the Previously forwarded packet, then it updates its address on the packet and extracis necessary state information. If the sequence number on the packet is less than that of the previously forwarded packet, then the packet is removed in order to avoid looping of Flow-REQ packets. If the sequence number on the packet is same as that of the previously forwarded packet, then the packet is broadcast further only if it has reached through a shorter path. The intermediate node appends its node address and the LET of the last link before forwarding a Flow-REQ. v¥ When the Flow-REQ packet reaches the destination node, it has information such as the list of nodes on the path it had traversed, along with the LET values of every wireless link on that path.tocols and Transyoyy posit ee Port Layer in apy i fs HOC Wiretess Newworks Destinationt iy Flow-SETUP Network Linl SourceID Path |—5—10-12-13 RET=5 Path B: ]-5—4-8-13 RET=7 Figure 3.20 Route Establishment in FORP Figure 3.20 illustrates the route establishment procedure. Here, the path 1-5- 48-13 (path 1) has a RET value of 7, whereas the path 1-5-10-12-13 (path 2) has a RET value of 5. This shows that path 1 may last longer than path 2. Thus the sender ode initiates a Flow-SETUP through the reverse path 13-8-4-5-1. ¥ FORP uses a proactive route maintenance mechanism which makes use of the expected RET of the current path available at the destination. “Ifthe destination node predicts a route break within a critical time period (tc), it initiates a Flow-HANDOFF packet to the source node through the / intermediate nodes. Ifmultiple Flow-HANDOFF packets are received by the source node, it selects the best path among them by calculating the RET values of each path.4 Ad hoc and Sensor Nop, Wong, ‘4 [Raa] ane : i ends the LET information of the previg ¥ Each intermediate node appends the 1 poe lings the Flow-HANDOFPF packets and then forwe 7 nre 3.21, the source node removes the existing path _ e3.21, , . As depicted in fi : hase RET 8-13 and selects the new path 1-6-10-12-13 based on RF . The critical time (tc) is considered as the difference between the RET . et which has traversed through the a delay encountered by the latest p: tistng Path from the source to the destination. ©. DestinationID Existing Path = > Flow-Handoff > 1-6-10-12-13 Network Link SourceID Figure 3.21 Route Maintenance in FORP Advantages: ¥ The path breaks are minimized by employing LET and RET. Y Asa result of path break, the related consequences like reduction in packet delivery increase in the number of out-of-order packets and non-optimal paths are also minimized. Y — Itis suitable for highly dynamic network since it implements proactive route reconfiguration mechanism. Disadvantages: ¥ The control overhead is increased due to time synchronization requirement ¥ Since location information of a node is to be obtained from GPS, it is a suitable for environments where such infrastructure may not be available., protocols and Transport Laye “ayer in AD tN AD HOC Wy gon g preferred Link-Based Routin 4 Protoce : Is (PLBR): rhe preferred Link-based Routing (p) fireless N works & [3.45] gh ‘ LBR) i cag particular mechanis: BR) is a teacti : uses PS chanisms to avoid flood; A reactive routing protocol which din, ts. g the network with RouteRequest pac’ The control overhead is reduced b _ pouteRequest packet. ¥ testricting the nodes to forward the Fach node in the network maintai ins a Nei; Neighbor Table (NNT). eighbor Table (NT) and the Neighbor's | The Preferred List (PL) contains : a subset from its Neighbor List (NL). of nodes that are chosen by a node vy. The PL of the sender is appended to the R outeR A to its neighbors. Request packet and is forwarded y The nodes ce are in the PL broadcasts the RouteRequest packet and the other nodes discards it. The size of the PL is K, where K is the maximum number of nodes comprising the PL. Y Fachnode maintains a Preferred List Table (PLT) which consists of all neighbor nodes in order of preference. Y PLis always a subset of PLT. The beacon is used to update the changes in the neighbors’ topology. Y The three different phases of PLBR are: 1. Route Establishment 2. Route Selection 3. Route Maintenance e to the destination node in the first Y The source node is trying to create # rout phase of route the establishment. : he information is passed to the destination if the The route is created and U destination node is in sour’ RouteRequest packet which cont ce’s NNT. Otherwise the source node originates a ains: