2024

Polynomial Functions

HIGH SCHOOL CONTENT

PAUL KOMLA DARKU
Table of Contents
Polynomial Functions ............................................................................................................................. 2
Types of Polynomial Functions .......................................................................................................... 2
Constant Function .......................................................................................................................... 2
Linear Function ............................................................................................................................... 3
Quadratic Function ......................................................................................................................... 4
Zeros or Roots of a Quadratic Function ......................................................................................... 5
Factorization ................................................................................................................................... 5
Completing the Squares ................................................................................................................. 6
Using the Quadratic Formula ......................................................................................................... 8
Nature of Roots of a Quadratic Equation ...................................................................................... 9
Finding a Quadratic Equation When Given the Roots ................................................................. 10
Relationship Between Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equation ..................................... 11
Symmetric Functions of Roots of Quadratic Equation ................................................................ 12
Minimum and Maximum Values of Quadratic Functions ........................................................... 15
Graphs of Quadratic Functions .................................................................................................... 17
Graphing Techniques .................................................................................................................... 18
Quadratic Inequalities .................................................................................................................. 19
Operations on Polynomial Functions ........................................................................................... 20
Remainder Theorem (Little Bézout’s Theorem) .......................................................................... 22
Zeros of Polynomials of Higher Degrees ...................................................................................... 23
Graphs of Polynomials of Higher Degrees ................................................................................... 24
Problem Set .................................................................................................................................. 25

Page 1 of 28
Polynomial Functions
A general polynomial function of degree 𝑛 in the independent variable 𝑥, is any function of
the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑥 𝑛−3 + ⋯ … … + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
where 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛−2 , 𝑎𝑛−3 , … … … , 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are real constants specially referred to as
coefficients and 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0. Note that the last two terms in the general expression could have
been written as 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎0 𝑥 0 instead, but 𝑥1 = 𝑥 and 𝑥 0 = 1 and so it is more simplified to
write it the way it has been written in the general form.
The degree of a polynomial function is the largest exponent of the independent variable in
the polynomial expression. This value is always a non-negative integer (thus, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑊). Observe
that in the general form above, 𝑛 is the largest exponent in the expression. The next term has
exponent 𝑛 − 1 which is 1 less than 𝑛. Subsequent terms in the general form always have
exponent value to be 1 less than the previous term.
5
Examples of polynomial functions include: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 + 𝜋𝑥 4 − 𝑒𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + ,
2
𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 7, 𝑝(𝑞) = 𝑞 2 − 2𝑞 + 1, 𝑟(𝑛) = 𝑛2 − 10𝑛 + 21, ℎ(𝑥) = √2𝑥 + 5,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥100 . There are two simple techniques to giving examples of polynomial functions:
the coefficients must be from the set 𝑅 of real numbers and the exponents of the independent
variable must be from the set 𝑊 of whole numbers. It is important to know that if 𝑓 is a
polynomial function in the independent variable 𝑥 and 𝑓 has degree 𝑛, then the coefficient of
the 𝑥 𝑛 term in 𝑓 cannot be zero. This has been made explicitly clear in the definition of a
general polynomial of degree 𝑛 above.

Types of Polynomial Functions

Polynomials are named based on their degrees. The table below shows some common
polynomials and their names.

Degree Name General Form

𝟎 Constant polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0
𝟏 Linear polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
𝟐 Quadratic polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
𝟑 Cubic polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
𝟒 Quartic polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎4 𝑥 4 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
𝟓 Quintic polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎5 𝑥 5 + 𝑎4 𝑥 4 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑡ℎ
𝒏 𝑛 degree polynomial 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1
+ ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

You will quite remember under “finding the largest possible domain of a function” that
polynomial functions are defined for all real numbers. For the sake of convenience, we shall
change the notations for the coefficients in the general forms of our polynomials when we
begin to pick them one after the other and study them in details.

Constant Function
A constant function is any function of the general form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 where 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. Examples of
constant functions include: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2, 𝑔(𝑥) = −21, 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝜋, ℎ(𝑥) = 276000 . The graphs

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of all constant functions are horizontal lines. Thus, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 is a horizontal line
that intersects the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at the point (0, 𝑎) in the cartesian plane. By definition of a
constant function, it is obvious that the co-domain set of a constant function is a singleton.
Thus, all elements in the domain (𝑅) have one common image. The range of a constant
function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 is therefore the set {𝑎}. We could consequently say that the constant
function is a many-to-one function. To draw the graph of a constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎, locate
the point (0, 𝑎) on the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and draw a horizontal line through this point to extend across
5
the domain. Below is the graph of the constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = − .
2

Linear Function
A linear function is any function of the general form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑎 ≠
3
0. Examples of linear functions include: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − √2, ℎ(𝑥) = −3𝑥. The
2
graphs of all linear functions are straight lines inclined to the horizontal. From the general
form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 of a linear function, 𝑎 is called the gradient or slope of the straight line.
The gradient tells us the degree to which the line is inclined to the horizontal. The larger the
absolute value of the gradient gets, the more the line approaches a vertical line. Similarly, the
smaller the absolute value of the gradient, the more the line approaches a horizontal line. The
sign of the gradient (+, −) tells us the orientation of the straight line. For instance, straight
lines with positive gradient have the orientation while those with negative gradient have
the orientation . Now, let us talk about 𝑏 in the general form of a linear function. 𝑏 is called
the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of the straight line. It is a point where the straight line intersects the 𝑦 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. Note that all constant functions are linear functions with gradient equal to zero. As we
have learned in Euclidean geometry, we will only need two points to draw the graph of a
straight line. Given the general linear function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 and knowing that the domain
is the set of all real numbers since it falls under the family of polynomials, we could pick two
elements from the domain set 𝑅 and find their corresponding images. We now obtain two
pair of points which we could plot in a plane and draw a straight line through to extend across
the domain. For the sake of convenience, we will compute these two points as the 𝑥 and 𝑦

Page 3 of 28
intercepts of the straight line. Here is how to compute the coordinates of the intercepts: at
the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (where the line intersects the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠), the 𝑦 coordinate remains zero.
This is true because all points on the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 do not require any vertical movement to reach
if we consider the origin as the starting point of all movements in the plane. Similarly, at the
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (where the line intersects the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠), the 𝑥 coordinate remains zero. This
also is true because to reach any point on the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 given that your initial position is the
origin, you do not require any horizontal movement in the plane. So, for our general linear
function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 or 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 is where 𝑦 = 0. Thus, solving the
𝑏
equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 for the value of 𝑥, we have that 𝑥 = − . The coordinates of the 𝑥 −
𝑎
𝑏
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 therefore becomes (− , 0). Also, the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of the line is the point where
𝑎
𝑥 = 0. Thus, solving the equation 𝑦 = 𝑎(0) + 𝑏 for the value of 𝑦, we have that 𝑦 = 𝑏. Hence,
the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 becomes (0, 𝑏). Let me conclude by stating that given a general linear
𝑏
function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, plot the points (− , 0) and (0, 𝑏) in the plane and draw
𝑎
a straight line through them to extend across the domain. For instance, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) =
2𝑥 − 2 is the straight line through (1, 0) and (0, −2) displayed below.

Quadratic Function
A quadratic function is any function of general form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅
and 𝑎 ≠ 0. Examples of quadratic functions include: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3, 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 +
1 9
4𝑥 − 4, ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − . The graph of a quadratic function is a curve called a
2 2
parabola. The parabola has two orientations depending on the sign of 𝑎. Thus, if 𝑎 is positive,
the parabola has the orientation and if 𝑎 is negative, the parabola has the orientation .
We shall learn about how to sketch the graph of a quadratic function later. Now, let us focus
on some important algebras regarding the quadratic function.

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Zeros or Roots of a Quadratic Function
The roots of a quadratic function are values of the independent variable 𝑥 that make the
functional expression equal to zero. Thus, to find the roots of a quadratic function of general
form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, solve the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 for the values of 𝑥. There
are three ways we could solve the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0. All these three
approaches are discussed below:

Factorization
For this approach, we shall resolve the left-hand side of the equation to a product of two
binomial expressions (sometimes a binomial and a monomial or two monomials). Thus, we
have that the product of two terms is zero, which means either one or both terms are zero.
We will therefore equate each of these factors to zero and find the possible values of 𝑥.
For example, suppose we will like to solve 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 = 0 by factorization, the first step is
to multiply the coefficient of 𝑥 2 by the constant term. Thus, 3 × −4 = −12. The second step
is to list all factors (negative and positive) of the result of the product in the first step. Thus,
{1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, −1. −2, −3, −4, −6, −12}. In step 3, look for a pair of values in the set from
step 2 such that the sum of this pair gives you the coefficient of 𝑥 in the original equation and
the product of the pair gives you the result in step 1. Thus, in our case, the pair which satisfies
these two conditions is −2 and 6. Now, in the fourth step, multiply each of the values in step
3 by 𝑥 to obtain −2𝑥 and 6𝑥 respectively and re-write the original equation by replacing the
middle term with these two new terms. Thus, in our case, we have 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 − 4 = 0.
Note that our new equation in step 4 is no different from the original equation 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 −
4 = 0 as −2𝑥 + 6𝑥 = 4𝑥. In step 5, pull out the common factors for the first two terms and
last two terms as follows: 𝑥(3𝑥 − 2) + 2(3𝑥 − 2) = 0. Now we have two terms on the left-
hand side with a common factor of (3𝑥 − 2). If we pull this common factor out, we have
(3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) = 0. The left-hand side of the equation has now been reduced to a product
of two binomials and since this product equals zero, we could say either (3𝑥 − 2) = 0 which
2
implies 𝑥 = or (𝑥 + 2) = 0 which implies 𝑥 = −2. We can then conclude that the roots of
3
2
the equation are −2 and . The factorization process can be summarized and the steps
3
presented precisely without all the bulky explanations as shown below:

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 = 0
2
3𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 − 4 = 0
𝑥(3𝑥 − 2) + 2(3𝑥 − 2) = 0
(3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) = 0
3𝑥 − 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 2 = 0
2
𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2
3
Note that, not all quadratic equations can be solved using factorization approach. The process
is not reliable for some quadratic equations. This is why it is important we learn about the
other two methods which are more robust and reliable for any given quadratic equation.

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Completing the Squares
Let us do a simple exercise of multiplying two binomial algebraic expressions. To be more
precise, let us square a binomial expression which is similar to multiplying the expression by
itself. Consider the expression (𝑎 + 𝑏), notice that when we square the expression, we have
that (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) which could be expanded on the right-hand side as:
𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏), further simplified as 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 and finally as 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 .
Thus, the expansion for the square of a binomial expression is given as the first term squared,
plus twice the product of the first and second term, plus the second term squared. For
instance, (𝑥 + 3)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2(3𝑥) + 32 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9. Also, (2𝑥 − 𝑦)2 = (2𝑥)2 +
2(−2𝑥𝑦) + (−𝑦)2 = 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 . An important skill that we will require to do
completion of squares is recognizing trinomials of the form above and writing them back as
perfect squares. For instance, 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 4 = (3𝑥)2 + 2(6𝑥) + 22 = (3𝑥 + 2)2. Another
example of such trinomial is 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25 = 𝑥 2 + 2(5𝑥) + 52 = (𝑥 + 5)2 . One last thing
before we proceed to completion of squares. Consider the trinomial expression 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3,
although this is not a perfect square, we would love to make a perfect square out of this
expression somehow without changing its value. How do we achieve this? We would be
adding some expression to the trinomial such that, the value of this expression amounts to
zero (additive identity element) so it does not change the value of the original expression but
also, the expression we would add should make it possible for us to identify three terms that
can be written as a perfect square. Notice that the trinomial 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 could be written as
𝑥 2 + 2(2𝑥) − 3. Which would have been a perfect square if the constant term was 4. Thus,
𝑥 2 + 2(2𝑥) + 22 = (𝑥 + 2)2 . Therefore, to make a perfect square out of the trinomial, we
would add (4 − 4) which is equivalent to zero to the expression. Thus, we obtain an
expression of the form 𝑥 2 + 2(2𝑥) + 4 − 4 − 3 = 𝑥 2 + 2(2𝑥) + 22 − 7 = (𝑥 + 2)2 − 7.
This technique is very crucial in the completion of squares process. We can confirm that
(𝑥 + 2)2 − 7 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 by expanding and simplifying the left-hand side. To make the
process much more convenient, always make sure the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is 1 before beginning
completion of squares. If it is anything other than 1, multiply the equation through by the
multiplicative inverse of the coefficient of 𝑥 2 to make it 1 before proceeding with the process.
Now, here is an example: suppose we would like to solve 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 = 0 by completing
1
the squares, the first step will be to multiply the equation through by to make the coefficient
3
of 𝑥 2 unity.
Thus,
1 1 1 1 4 4
× 3𝑥 2 + × 4𝑥 + × −4 = × 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − = 0
3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 2 4
Now, we have the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0 which could be written as 𝑥 2 + 2 (3 𝑥) − 3 = 0.
3
4
Notice that the expression would have been a perfect square if the constant term was or
9
2 2 4 4
( ) . So, let us add ( − ) which is equivalent to zero, to the expression. Thus, we obtain the
3 9 9

Page 6 of 28
 2 4 4 4 2 2 2 16
equation 𝑥 2 + 2 ( 𝑥) + − − = 0. This becomes 𝑥 2 + 2 ( 𝑥) + ( ) − = 0 and
3 9 9 3 3 3 9
2 2 16
eventually, (𝑥 + ) − = 0. We can then find the values of 𝑥with the steps outlined below:
3 9

2 2 16
(𝑥 + ) =
3 9

2 16
𝑥+ = ±√
3 9

2 4
𝑥=− ±
3 3
2 4 2 2 4 6
Hence, 𝑥 = − + = or 𝑥 = − − = − = −2.
3 3 3 3 3 3

The completion of squares process is simplified in the steps below:

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 = 0
1 1 1 1
× 3𝑥 2 + × 4𝑥 + × −4 = × 0
3 3 3 3
4 4
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − = 0
3 3
2 4
𝑥 2 + 2 ( 𝑥) − = 0
3 3
2 4 4 4
𝑥 2 + 2 ( 𝑥) + − − = 0
3 9 9 3

2
2 2 2 16
𝑥 + 2 ( 𝑥) + ( ) − =0
3 3 9
2 2 16
(𝑥 + ) − =0
3 9
2 2 16
(𝑥 + ) =
3 9

2 16
𝑥+ = ±√
3 9

2 4
𝑥=− ±
3 3
2 4 2 4
𝑥 = − + 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = − −
3 3 3 3
2
𝑥= 𝑜𝑟 − 2
3

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Using the Quadratic Formula
The quadratic formula is a generalization drawn from the method of completion of squares
for the general quadratic equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0. To obtain the quadratic
formula, we will have to solve the general quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 by
completing the squares. The values we will obtain for 𝑥 then become a general result which
could be applied to solve any quadratic equation. The steps for deriving the quadratic formula
through completion of squares are shown below:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
1 1 1 1
× 𝑎𝑥 2 + × 𝑏𝑥 + × 𝑐 = × 0
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = 0
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐
𝑥 2 + 2 ( 𝑥) + = 0
2𝑎 𝑎

2
𝑏 𝑏 2 𝑏 2 𝑐
𝑥 + 2 ( 𝑥) + ( ) − ( ) + = 0
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐
(𝑥 + ) − 2 + = 0
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐
(𝑥 + ) = 2 −
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
(𝑥 + ) =
2𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ = ±√
2𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=− ±
2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Thus, given the general quadratic equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we can find the
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
values of 𝑥 using the formular 𝑥 = .
2𝑎

Here is an example: To solve the quadratic equation 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 = 0 using the quadratic

formular, we would have to compare the equation to the general form which is 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 +
𝑐 = 0 and notice that 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 4, and 𝑐 = −4.

Page 8 of 28
Hence,

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
−4 ± √(−4)2 − 4 × 3 × −4
𝑥=
2×3
−4 ± √16 + 48
𝑥=
6
−4 ± √64
𝑥=
6
−4 ± 8
𝑥=
6
−4 + 8 −4 − 8
𝑥= 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
6 6
2
𝑥= 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2
3
Nature of Roots of a Quadratic Equation
The roots of a quadratic equation can be categorized into two: Real Roots and Complex Roots
or Imaginary Roots. The real roots can further be categorized into two: Repeated Real Roots
(Real and Equal Roots) and Distinct Real Roots. We can tell the nature of the roots of a
quadratic equation without actually solving the equation. All we need to do is a simple test
for the value of the discriminant. The discriminant is the expression under the square root
sign in the quadratic formular and it is represented by ∆. Thus, ∆= 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐. The table below
summarizes the conditions for drawing conclusions on the nature of roots of a quadratic
equation.

Condition Nature of Roots Sub-condition Nature of Real Roots

∆= 0 Equal or Repeated Real Roots
∆≥𝟎 Real Roots
∆> 0 Distinct Real Roots
∆< 𝟎 Complex Roots

Here is an example: Determine the nature of roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0.

Comparing the equation to the general form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we notice that 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 =
−3 and 𝑐 = −2. Therefore, the discriminant is computed as follows:
∆= 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−3)2 − 4 × 2 × −2 = 9 + 16 = 25
Since ∆> 0, the equation has distinct real roots.
Here is another example: Find the values of the constant 𝑘 such that the quadratic equation
9𝑥 2 − 3𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 has repeated real roots.

Page 9 of 28
Comparing the equation to the general form, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we notice that 𝑎 = 9, 𝑏 =
−3𝑘 and 𝑐 = 𝑘. For the equation to have equal roots, ∆= 0.
Thus,
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0
(−3𝑘)2 − 4 × 9 × 𝑘 = 0
9𝑘 2 − 36𝑘 = 0
9𝑘(𝑘 − 4) = 0
9𝑘 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 − 4 = 0
𝑘 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 4
Thus, the equation has repeated real roots when 𝑘 = 0 𝑜𝑟 4.
Here is a final example: Determine the range of values of the constant 𝑞 for which the
quadratic equation 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 has real roots.
Comparing the equation to the general form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we notice 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2 and
𝑐 = 𝑘. The equation has real roots if ∆≥ 0.
Thus,
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0
22 − 4 × 1 × 𝑘 ≥ 0
4 − 4𝑘 ≥ 0
4 − 4 − 4𝑘 ≥ 0 − 4
−4𝑘 ≥ −4
𝑘≤1
Thus, the equation has real roots for all real values of 𝑘 less than or equal to 1.

Finding a Quadratic Equation When Given the Roots

Suppose we know that the roots of a quadratic equation are 𝛼 and 𝛽, then this implies that
the equation has factored form (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0. Expanding this factored form gives the
equation 𝑥 2 − 𝛽𝑥 − 𝛼𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0 which can be re-written as 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0.
Therefore, when given the roots of a quadratic equation, you can find the equation as:

𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0

Here is an example: Determine the quadratic equation whose roots are 2 and −3.
Sum of roots = 2 + (−3) = −1 and Product of roots = 2 × −3 = −6
Equation: 𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0. Thus, 𝑥 2 − (−1)𝑥 + (−6) = 0
which simplifies to 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0

Page 10 of 28
Relationship Between Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equation
Suppose we solve the general quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 and obtain the roots to
be 𝛼 and 𝛽, then we know from the previous sub-topic that the equation whose roots are 𝛼
and 𝛽 has to be 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0. But the equation we had was 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
hence, it implies 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0 and 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are the same so we can
compare both. However, notice the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is unity in one of the equations so before
we could compare the two equations, we should express the coefficient of 𝑥 2 in the other
1 𝑏 𝑐
equation to be 1 by multiplying the equation through by . Thus, we obtain 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + = 0.
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
2 2 𝑏 𝑐
Now, comparing the two equations 𝑥 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0 and obtain 𝑥 + 𝑥 + = 0
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
which by our reasoning should be same, we notice that −(𝛼 + 𝛽) = or 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − and
𝑎 𝑎
𝑐
also, 𝛼𝛽 = . We can therefore state the two identities below as the relationship between the
𝑎
roots of a quadratic equation and the coefficients of the equation:
𝑏
𝛼 + 𝛽 = − … … … (1)
𝑎
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 = … … … (2)
𝑎
The above relations suggest that you can tell the sum and product of roots of a quadratic
equation without actually solving the equation.
Here is an example: If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0, then find the value of 𝛼 + 𝛽
and 𝛼𝛽.
Comparing the equation to the general form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we notice that 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 =
−5 and 𝑐 = 6. Hence,
𝑏 −5
𝛼+𝛽 =− =− =5
𝑎 1
𝑐 6
𝛼𝛽 = = =6
𝑎 1
Note that, we could also show these relationships using the values of 𝑥 from the quadratic
formula. Thus, suppose we’ve been told 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we also
−𝑏+√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
know from the quadratic formular that the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are and
2𝑎
−𝑏−√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏+√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏−√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
hence, let 𝛼 = and 𝛽 = . With these expressions as
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
the roots of the quadratic equation, we can proceed with the algebra to find sum of roots and
product of roots by adding and multiplying the expressions respectively. This approach can
also be used to demonstrate the relationship between the roots of a quadratic equation and
the coefficients of the equation.
The procedure is shown in the workings on the next page.

Page 11 of 28
 −𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝛼+𝛽 = +
2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝛼+𝛽 =
2𝑎
−𝑏 − 𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝛼+𝛽 =
2𝑎
2𝑏 𝑏
𝛼+𝛽 =− =−
2𝑎 𝑎
Also,

−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝛼𝛽 = ×
2𝑎 2𝑎
(−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)(−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)
𝛼𝛽 =
2𝑎 × 2𝑎
𝑏 2 + 𝑏√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 − (𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)
𝛼𝛽 =
4𝑎2
𝑏 2 − 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 4𝑎𝑐 𝑐
𝛼𝛽 = = 2=
4𝑎2 4𝑎 𝑎
Symmetric Functions of Roots of Quadratic Equation
Suppose 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, then a symmetric function
in 𝛼 and 𝛽 is any expression that remains unchanged by the permutation of 𝛼 and 𝛽. (The
value of the expression does not change when we switch the positions of 𝛼 and 𝛽). Below are
some examples of symmetric functions in 𝛼 and 𝛽.

1. 𝛼+𝛽 1 1
9. +
2. 𝛼𝛽 𝛼3 𝛽3
1 1
3. 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 10. +
𝛼4 𝛽4
4. 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3 𝛼 𝛽
5. 𝛼 4 + 𝛽4 11. +
𝛽 𝛼
6. (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 𝛼 𝛽
1 1 12. +
7. + 𝛽2 𝛼2
𝛼 𝛽
1 1 𝛼 𝛽
8. + 13.√ + √
𝛼2 𝛽2 𝛽 𝛼

Given a quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 whose roots are 𝛼 and 𝛽, we can compute the
values of the symmetric functions in 𝛼 and 𝛽 without actually solving the equation. The trick
is to express the symmetric functions in terms of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽 which are easily computed
from the equation using the relationship between the roots and coefficients of a quadratic
equation. Here are some illustrations of how to express symmetric functions in 𝛼 and 𝛽 in
terms of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽:

Page 12 of 28
1. (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 + 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2
(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2
∴ 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽

2. (𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 )2 = 𝛼 4 + 2𝛼 2 𝛽 2 + 𝛽 4
(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 )2 − 2𝛼 2 𝛽 2 = 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4
∴ 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = [(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽]2 − 2(𝛼𝛽)2

3. (𝛼 + 𝛽)3 = 𝛼 3 + 3𝛼 2 𝛽 + 3𝛼𝛽 2 + 𝛽 3
(𝛼 + 𝛽)3 = 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 + 3𝛼𝛽(𝛼 + 𝛽)
(𝛼 + 𝛽)3 − 3𝛼𝛽(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3
∴ 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)3 − 3𝛼𝛽(𝛼 + 𝛽)

4. (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 − 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 − 2𝛼𝛽
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 − 2𝛼𝛽
∴ (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽

1 1 𝛽+𝛼 𝛼+𝛽
5. + = =
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽 𝛼𝛽

1 1 𝛽 2 +𝛼 2 𝛼 2 +𝛽 2 (𝛼+𝛽)2 −2𝛼𝛽
6. 2
+ = = =
𝛼 𝛽2 𝛼2𝛽2 (𝛼𝛽)2 (𝛼𝛽)2

1 1 𝛽 3 +𝛼 3 𝛼 3 +𝛽 3 (𝛼+𝛽)3 −3𝛼𝛽(𝛼+𝛽)
7. 3
+ = = =
𝛼 𝛽3 𝛼3𝛽3 (𝛼𝛽)3 (𝛼𝛽)3

1 1 𝛽 4 +𝛼 4 𝛼 4 +𝛽 4 [(𝛼+𝛽)2 −2𝛼𝛽]2 −2(𝛼𝛽)2

8. 4
+ = = =
𝛼 𝛽4 𝛼4𝛽4 (𝛼𝛽)4 (𝛼𝛽)4

𝛼 𝛽 𝛼 2 +𝛽 2 [(𝛼+𝛽)2 −2𝛼𝛽]
9. + = =
𝛽 𝛼 𝛼𝛽 𝛼𝛽

𝛼 𝛽 𝛼 3 +𝛽 3 [(𝛼+𝛽)3 −3𝛼𝛽(𝛼+𝛽)]
10. 2
+ = =
𝛽 𝛼2 𝛼2𝛽2 (𝛼𝛽)2

𝛼 𝛽 √𝛼 √𝛽 𝛼+𝛽
11.√ + √ = + =
𝛽 𝛼 √𝛽 √𝛼 √𝛼𝛽

Page 13 of 28
There are also functions in 𝛼 and 𝛽 whose values we could compute by expressing them in
terms of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽. However, these functions are not symmetric. We will do these
computations with the assumption that 𝛼 ≥ 𝛽. Examples of these functions and illustrations
of how to express them in terms of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽 are show below:

1. 𝛼 − 𝛽 = √(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽 Thus, we just take the positive square root of the
expression on the both sides of the identity (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽. Note that
making (𝛼 − 𝛽) the subject from the identity would have implied 𝛼 − 𝛽 =
±√(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽 , but since our assumption is that 𝛼 ≥ 𝛽, that difference cannot
be negative.

2. 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 − 𝛽) = (𝛼 + 𝛽)√(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽

3. 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 2 + 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 )
𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽]
𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 𝛼𝛽]
∴ 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = [(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 𝛼𝛽]√(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽

4. 𝛼 3 𝛽 − 𝛽 3 𝛼 = 𝛼𝛽(𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 ) = 𝛼𝛽(𝛼 + 𝛽)√(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽

Here is an example: Given that 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 12𝑥 2 − 19𝑥 + 4 = 0,
𝛼 𝛽
determine the value of 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 and also find the equation whose roots are 𝑎𝑛𝑑 .
𝛽 𝛼

Comparing the equation to the general form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we notice that 𝑎 = 12, 𝑏 =

−19 and 𝑐 = 4. Since 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation, we have that:
𝑏 (−19) 19
𝛼+𝛽 =− =− =
𝑎 12 12
𝑐 4 1
𝛼𝛽 = = =
𝑎 12 3
19 2 1 265
Therefore, 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 = ( ) − 2 ( ) =
12 3 144

𝛼 𝛽
For the equation with roots and 𝛼
𝛽

𝛼 𝛽 𝛼 2 +𝛽 2 265 1 265 3 265

Sum of roots = + = = ÷ = × =
𝛽 𝛼 𝛼𝛽 144 3 144 1 48

𝛼 𝛽
Product of roots = × =1
𝛽 𝛼

Equation: 𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0

265
Thus, 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 0 which is same as 48𝑥 2 − 265𝑥 + 48 = 0
48

Page 14 of 28
Minimum and Maximum Values of Quadratic Functions
A quadratic function may have a minimum or maximum value depending on whether the
coefficient of 𝑥 2 is positive or negative respectively. The minimum and maximum values occur
at a point on the curve called the turning point. The maximum value is the largest real number
output of the function considering all input elements from the domain. The minimum value
on the other hand is the smallest real number output of the function for all input values in the
domain. Recall that the graph of a quadratic function has two orientations depending on the
sign of the coefficient of 𝑥 2 . A quadratic curve which opens upwards will have a minimum
value while that which opens downwards will have a maximum value. The minimum and
maximum values are read at the turning point by tracing the point horizontally to the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
and reading the value on the axis. Given a general quadratic function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, we should be able to tell straight away whether the function has maximum or
minimum value by observing the coefficient of 𝑥 2 . We can then compute this maximum or
minimum value by completing the squares for the function. Recall that the first step in
completing the squares is making the coefficient of 𝑥 2 unity. However, unlike a quadratic
equation, we do not want to multiply the function through by the multiplicative inverse of the
coefficient of 𝑥 2 to make it unity. Rather, we will factor the coefficient of 𝑥 2 out from the
function and then proceed to complete the squares for the expression in the bracket. Given
the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, we can complete the squares for 𝑓(𝑥) as follows:
𝑏 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + )
𝑎 𝑎
Now, that we factored coefficient of 𝑥 2 out, we can complete the squares for the expression
in the bracket as follows:
𝑏 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 [𝑥 2 + 2 ( 𝑥) + ]
2𝑎 𝑎

2
𝑏 𝑏 2 𝑏 2 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 [𝑥 + 2 ( 𝑥) + ( ) − ( ) + ]
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎

𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 [(𝑥 + ) − 2 + ]
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎

𝑏 2 −𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 [(𝑥 + ) + ]
2𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 2 −(𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 [(𝑥 + ) + ]
2𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 2 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 [(𝑥 + ) − ]
2𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 2 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 (𝑥 + ) −
2𝑎 4𝑎

Page 15 of 28
Once you have completed the squares for a quadratic function to obtain an expression of the
𝑏 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘 where ℎ = and 𝑘 = − ( ), then you can conclude that
2𝑎 4𝑎
𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
the minimum or maximum value is given by 𝑦 = − ( ) and it occurs at the point where
4𝑎
𝑏
𝑥 + ℎ = 0 or 𝑥 = −ℎ. Thus, 𝑥 = − . Since the maximum or minimum value occurs at the
2𝑎
turning point of the curve, we could conclude that the turning point has coordinates
𝑏 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
(− ,− ). To find the maximum or minimum value of a quadratic function and the
2𝑎 4𝑎
𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
value of 𝑥 where this occurs, you could decide to use the formulae 𝑦 = − ( ) and 𝑥 =
4𝑎
𝑏
− respectively or alternatively, complete the squares for the function and obtain them
2𝑎
directly from the resulting form.
Here is an example: Find the minimum value of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5 and also
the value of 𝑥 where this occurs.
Comparing the function to the general form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, we notice 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 6
𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 62 −4×1×5 36−20
and 𝑐 = 5. The minimum value is given by 𝑦 = − ( ) = −( ) = −( )=
4𝑎 4×1 4
16 𝑏 6
− = −4 and occurs at 𝑥 = − =− = −3.
4 2𝑎 2×1

Alternatively,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2(3𝑥) + 5
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2(3𝑥) + 32 − 32 + 5
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 3)2 − 9 + 5
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 3)2 − 4
Hence, the minimum value is −4 and it occurs at 𝑥 + 3 = 0 or 𝑥 = −3. Below is the graph of
the function. Observe that the turning point could be traced horizontally to −4 on the 𝑦 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and vertically to −3 on the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

Page 16 of 28
Graphs of Quadratic Functions
To be able to sketch the graph of a quadratic function, here are few things to determine:
1. The orientation of the curve: There are two orientations as discussed earlier. The curve
opens upwards when the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is positive and opens downward when
coefficient of 𝑥 2 is negative.
2. Roots or zeros of the function: The roots help you determine the coordinates of the
𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡s of the curve. Remember the nature of roots and keep in mind that
some functions will intersect the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 at two different points (distinct real roots),
others will intersect it at just a single point (equal real roots) and some won’t intersect
it at all (complex roots).
3. Intercept on the vertical axis: Determine the coordinates of the point where the curve
intersects the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. Remember to make the substitution 𝑥 = 0 at 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡.
4. Turning Point: Determine the coordinates of the turning of the curve. This can be done
by using the formulae or completing the squares for the function.
5. Axis of symmetry: Indicate the axis of symmetry of the curve. It is a vertical line through
the turning point that divides the curve into two equal halves that are reflections of
one another.
The diagrams below give blueprints of sketches of the two orientations of the graph of a
quadratic function.

Axis of symmetry 𝑦
𝑦
Maximum turning point

y-intercept
Root Root 𝑥
Root Root
y-intercept 𝑥

Minimum turning point

Axis of symmetry

Here is an example: Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = −5 − 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .

1. Since the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is negative, the curve opens downwards.
2. The zeros are obtained by solving 𝑓(𝑥) = 0. Thus, −5 − 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = 0
Multiplying through by −1 gives: 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5 = 0
Factoring gives (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 5) = 0. Thus, 𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −5
Hence, the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑠 are (−5, 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−1, 0)
3. At 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, 𝑥 = 0
Thus, 𝑦 = −5 − 6(0) − 02 = −5. The coordinates are given by (0, −5)

Page 17 of 28
 𝑏 −6
4. Coordinates for the turning point are given as: 𝑥 = − =− = −3 and 𝑦 =
2𝑎 2×−1
𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 (−6)2 −4×−1×−5
−( ) = −( ) = 4. Thus, turning point is (−3, 4)
4𝑎 4×−1
5. The axis of symmetry has equation 𝑥 = −3.
Below is a sketch of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = −5 − 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2
𝑦

−5 −3 −1 𝑥

−5

Graphing Techniques
The basic quadratic function is the 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . The graph of this function has turning point at
the origin and is symmetric about the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. Note that the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is positive 1 so
this parabola opens upwards. A negative coefficient will imply the curve opens downward. If
we should express the general quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 in tha form 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘 by completing the squares, then the graph becomes easier to sketch. Here is a
quick activity for you, I have provided below a link to a GeoGebra file. When you click on this
link, it should take you to the graph of the basic quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . There are
sliders on the graph with labels 𝑎, ℎ and 𝑘. Initially, you should see that the values of ℎ and 𝑘
are set to zero while 𝑎 is set to one. These sliders make it possible to change the values of 𝑎, ℎ
and 𝑘 in the quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘 and in effect, see how that affects the
graph. Our goal for exploring this resource is to find out how each of these three variables
affect the graph of the function. You can explore them one after the other by pressing the
animation button right after each slider and reduce the animation speed to maybe × 0.2 and
carefully observe what changes in the graph as the value of the variable changes. Click the link
GeoGebra Resource.
Here are some conclusions we can draw from our little exploration exercise:

1. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘 shrinks when absolute value of 𝑎 gets larger and
larger but widens when absolute value of 𝑎 gets smaller and smaller.
2. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘 shifts horizontally to the right by |ℎ| units from
the origin if ℎ < 0 and shifts horizontally to the left by |ℎ| units from the origin if ℎ >
0.
3. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘 shifts vertically upwards by |𝑘| units from the
origin if 𝑘 > 0 and shifts vertically downwards by |𝑘| units from the origin if 𝑘 < 0.

Page 18 of 28
We could therefore sketch the graph of a given quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 by
completing the squares to obtain 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘 and then applying the appropriate
transformations to the graph of the basic quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 to obtain the graph
of the given function.

Quadratic Inequalities
An inequality is any expression involving any one of: less than (<), less than or equal (≤),
greater than (>), or greater than or equal (≥). A quadratic inequality is an inequality that
contains a quadratic expression. It is very convenient to express one side of an inequality to
be zero when finding the range of solutions. When you have successfully expressed the
inequality such that the quadratic expression is at one side and zero at the other side then the
solution can be observed from the graph of the quadratic function. For instance, the solution
to the inequality 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 ≤ 0 is the range of values of 𝑥 for which the graph intersects or
lies above the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. Note that the quadratic expression on the left-hand side of the
inequality has zeros 2 and 3. The curve also opens upwards hence, it is obvious that for 𝑥
values between the zeros, the curve lies below the horizontal axis. However, the curve lies
above the horizontal axis for all 𝑥 values greater than 3 or less than 2. Thus, the solution
becomes {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≤ 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 3}.
Here is an example: For what values of 𝑘 does the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 + 4 = 0 have
complex roots?
Recall that a quadratic equation has complex roots when the discriminant is less than zero.
Thus, when 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0. Comparing the given equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 + 4 = 0 to the general
form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0,we notice that 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 𝑘 and 𝑐 = 4. So, for the equation to have
complex roots,
𝑘2 − 4 × 1 × 4 < 0
𝑘 2 − 16 < 0
(𝑘 − 4)(𝑘 + 4) < 0
The roots of the quadratic expression on the left-hand side of the inequality are 4 and −4. We
therefore create a table for the three intervals that the roots divide the set of real numbers
into and test values from these three intervals to see which satisfies the inequality.

Interval 𝒌 < −𝟒 −𝟒 < 𝒌 < 𝟒 𝒌>𝟒

Test Values (𝒌 =? ) −5 0 5
𝟐
Test Results (𝒌 − 9 −16 9
16 =? )
Conclusion Greater than zero −16 is less than Greater than zero
hence interval does zero hence, the hence interval does
not satisfy the interval satisfies the not satisfy the
inequality inequality inequality

So, the values of 𝑘 for which the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 + 4 = 0 has complex roots is
given as {𝑘: 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅, −4 < 𝑘 < 4}. An alternative approach will be to use the graph.

Page 19 of 28
Operations on Polynomial Functions

Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials

To add or subtract two or more polynomials, add or subtract like-terms in both polynomials.
Like-terms are terms that have the same exponent of the independent variable. Here is an
example, given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 8 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 find 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) and
also 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥). The table below adds the two polynomials by summing like-terms in each
column.

𝒇(𝒙) 𝟑𝒙𝟑 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟎𝒙 −𝟖

𝒈(𝒙) 0𝑥 3 𝑥2 −2𝑥 3
𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙) 3𝑥 3 5𝑥 2 −2𝑥 −5
Result 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 5
3

Similarly, subtraction of the two polynomials is performed in the table below:

𝒇(𝒙) 𝟑𝒙𝟑 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟎𝒙 −𝟖

𝒈(𝒙) 0𝑥 3 𝑥2 −2𝑥 3
𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙) 3𝑥 3 3𝑥 2 2𝑥 −11
Result 3 2
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 11

Alternatively, we could have performed the addition and subtraction in a manner as shown
below:
Note that 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = (3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 8) + (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3) = 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8 +
3 = 3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 5
Also, 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = (3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 8) − (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3) = 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 − 3 =
3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 11
Multiplication of Polynomials
Multiplication of two polynomials is similar to expansion of brackets for two algebraic
expressions and simplification of the result. Here is an example: Multiply 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 −
5𝑥 − 2 by 𝑔(𝑥) = 13𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6.
𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) = (2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2)(13𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6)
= 2𝑥 3 (13𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6) + 3𝑥 2 (13𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6) − 5𝑥(13𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6) − 2(13𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6)
= 26𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 3 + 39𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2 − 65𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 30𝑥 − 26𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 12
= 26𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 4 + 39𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 3 − 65𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2 − 26𝑥 2 − 30𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 12
= 26𝑥 5 + 37𝑥 4 − 56𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 − 12

Page 20 of 28
Division of Polynomials
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are two polynomials such that the degree of 𝑓(𝑥) is greater or equal
𝑓(𝑥)
to the degree of 𝑔(𝑥), then the result for the division will be some quotient plus the
𝑔(𝑥)
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
remainder of the division over the divisor. Thus, = 𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 + . If the
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟
degree of 𝑓(𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝑔(𝑥), then the quotient for that division is zero and
the remainder remains 𝑓(𝑥). Let us consider a division problem involving two integers. For
instance, to divide 7 by 2, we know 2 goes into 7 exactly three times and leaves a remainder
7 1
of 1. Thus, the quotient for the division is 3 and the remainder is 1 hence, = 3 + . We shall
2 2
divide polynomials using the long division method.
Here is an example: Divide 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 5 by 𝑥 + 1.
The solution process is displayed below and the explanation follows.

3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 7

𝑥+1 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 5
− 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 5
−
𝑥2 + 𝑥

−7𝑥 − 5
−
−7𝑥 − 7

2
Thus,
3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 5 2
= 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 7 +
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
Steps Explained
1. Draw the square root sign and write the divisor to the left side of the root sign and
the dividend under the root sign. (Make sure both divisor and dividend are arranged
in descending order in terms of degree of the terms)
2. Factor the first term (𝑥) of the divisor, out from the first term (3𝑥 3 ) of the dividend
to obtain the product 𝑥(3𝑥 2 ). Write the second factor of this product (3𝑥 2 ) at the
top of the square root sign.
3. Multiply the term 3𝑥 2 at the top by the divisor 𝑥 + 1 to obtain 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 and write
this result beneath the dividend under the square root.
4. Subtract the result 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 from the dividend 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 5 to obtain the
expression 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 5.

Page 21 of 28
 5. Draw a horizontal bar and write this result beneath the bar.
6. Repeat step 2 to 5 for this new result found until the difference in step 4 at some
point has degree less than the divisor.

Remainder Theorem (Little Bézout’s Theorem)

Let 𝑝(𝑥) be a given polynomial function of degree greater or equal to one and (𝑥 − 𝑎) be
some linear polynomial. Suppose the quotient when 𝑝(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎 is 𝑞(𝑥) and the
remainder is 𝑟, then we could write out the result for this division as follows:
𝑝(𝑥) 𝑟
= 𝑞(𝑥) +
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
Multiplying the above result through by 𝑥 − 𝑎 gives:
𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟
When we substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎 into the equation above, we obtain:
𝑝(𝑎) = (𝑎 − 𝑎)𝑞(𝑎) + 𝑟
Which simplifies to:
𝑟 = 𝑝(𝑎)
The polynomial remainder theorem, better known as the little Bézout’s theorem states that
when a polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) is divided by a linear factor 𝑥 − 𝑎 that is not an element of the
polynomial, then the remainder of the division is the value of 𝑝(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 or 𝑝(𝑎). The
factor theorem is a special case of the remainder theorem where the remainder for the
division is zero. This suggests that the divisor is a factor of the dividend. Thus, if 𝑝(𝑎) = 0,
then 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑝(𝑥). This theorem can be used to factor a polynomial of any degree
and also determine if a given value is a root of a polynomial or not.

Here is an example: Determine the remainder when 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5 is divided by

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2.
Note that when we equate the divisor to zero and find the value of 𝑥, we have that 𝑥 = −2.
Therefore, the remainder for the division is given by 𝑓(−2) = 3(−2)2 + 4(−2) − 5 = 12 −
8 − 5 = −1.

Here is another example: Given that 𝑥 − 5 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 10, find the value
of 𝑘.
If 𝑥 − 5 if a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑓(5) = 0.
Thus, 3(5)2 + 5𝑘 − 10 = 0 ⇒ 75 + 5𝑘 − 10 = 0 ⇒ 5𝑘 = −65 ⇒ 𝑘 = −13
Here is a final example: The remainder when 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 5 is divided by 𝑥 − 1 is −10.
Find the value of 𝑘.
If remainder of the division is −10, then 𝑓(1) = −10. Thus, 12 + 𝑘 × 1 − 5 = −10
Which implies 𝑘 − 4 = −10 and hence, 𝑘 = −10 + 4 = −6.

Page 22 of 28
Zeros of Polynomials of Higher Degrees
Here is an example: Determine the roots of the equation 6𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 36𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 = 0.
1. Multiply the coefficient of the term with the highest exponent of 𝑥 by the constant
term. Thus, 6 × 6 = 36.
2. List all factors of the result in step one (both positive and negative) Thus,
{1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36, −1, −2, −3, −4, −6, −12, −18, −36}
3. Test the factors in step 2 one after the other by substituting them in place of 𝑥 in the
equation to see which satisfies the equation. We only need one factor at this stage. It
is obvious 2 satisfies the equation. Thus, 2 is a zero hence, 𝑥 − 2 is a factor of the
polynomial.
4. Divide the polynomial by 𝑥 − 2 as follows:

6𝑥 3 + 19𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3

𝑥−2 6𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 36𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6
− 6𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3

19𝑥 3 − 36𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6
−
19𝑥 3 − 38𝑥 2

2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6
−
2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥

−3𝑥 + 6
−
−3𝑥 + 6

− −

6𝑥 4 +7𝑥 3 −36𝑥 2 −7𝑥+6

We can therefore write the result for the division as = 6𝑥 3 +
𝑥−2
19𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 since the remainder is zero. Multiplying this result through by 𝑥 −
2 gives us 6𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 36𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 − 2)(6𝑥 3 + 19𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3). Thus, we
have expressed the quartic polynomial as a product of a linear and cubic polynomial.
Now let’s see if we can factor the cubic as a product of a linear and a quadratic.
5. Multiply the coefficient of the term with the highest exponent of 𝑥 in the cubic
polynomial by the constant term. Thus, 6 × −3 = −18.
6. List all factors of the result in step 5 (both positive and negative) as follows:
{1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, −1, −2, −3, −6, −9, −18}
7. Test each factor by substituting it in place of 𝑥 in the cubic polynomial to see which
one gives a zero. It is obvious −3 is a zero of the cubic polynomial hence, 𝑥 + 3 is a
factor.

Page 23 of 28
 8. Divide the cubic polynomial 6𝑥 3 + 19𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 by 𝑥 + 3 as follows:

6𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1

𝑥+3 6𝑥 3 + 19𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
− 6𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
−
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥

−𝑥 − 3
−
−𝑥 − 3

− −

6𝑥 3 +19𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3
We can now write the result for the division as follows: = 6𝑥 2 +
𝑥+3
𝑥 − 1. Again, multiplying this result through by 𝑥 + 3 gives 6𝑥 3 + 19𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 =
(x + 3)(6x 2 + 𝑥 − 1). Thus, we have expressed the cubic polynomial as a product of
a linear and a quadratic polynomial.
9. Now we can write that 6𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 36𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)(6𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −
1).
10. Lastly, factorize the quadratic polynomial so that you obtain a product of all four linear
factors for the quartic polynomial. Note that 6𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = (2𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 − 1). Thus,
6𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 36𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 − 1).
11. The zeros of this quartic polynomial can be obtained by equating each of the linear
1
factors to zero and finding the corresponding values of 𝑥. Thus, the zeros are 2, −3, −
2
1
and .
3

You can use this method to factor polynomials of higher degrees, provided they can be
factored.

Graphs of Polynomials of Higher Degrees

The graph of a polynomial of degree 𝑛 has (𝑛 − 1) turning points. Note that 𝑛 here is greater
or equal to 2 since the graphs of linear and constant polynomials are straight lines that have
no turning points at all. To draw the graph of polynomials of higher degree, find the zeros. A
polynomial with 𝑛 real zeros divides the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 into (𝑛 + 1) intervals. Determine the
behavior of the graph at each of these intervals to see if the graph lies above or below the
horizontal axis in the interval. You can do this by testing an 𝑥 value from the interval in the
function to verify if it returns a positive or negative result.

Here is an example: Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 36𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6.

Page 24 of 28
 1 1
The function here is quite familiar, because we have found its zeros as 2, −3, − and . Thus,
2 3
we proceed with testing the behavior of the graph as follows:

−𝟑 < 𝒙 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Interval 𝒙 < −𝟑 𝟏 − <𝒙< <𝒙<𝟐 𝒙>𝟐
<− 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐
7 1 7
Test Value −4 − − 3
4 12 6
9375 21875 3125
Test Result 546 − − 336
128 3456 108
Sign of Result + − + − +

The sketch is shown below:

−3 1 1 2 𝑥
−
2 3

Problem Set
These problems were obtained from “Polytechnic Mathematics” by M. Singh

1. Show by using the quadratic formula that the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑏𝑥 2 −
𝑎 𝑏
(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 = 0 are and .
𝑏 𝑎
2. Show that the roots of the equation 𝑎(𝑥 2 + 1) = 𝑥(𝑎2 + 1) are reciprocals of one
another.
3. Solve the quadratic equation 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑎𝑥 + (𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 ) = 0 by completing the squares.
4. Solve the following quadratic equations using which ever method is convenient.
i. 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 15 = 0
ii. 15𝑥 2 − 49𝑥 + 12 = 0
iii. (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 2 + (𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑥 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 0
iv. 𝑎𝑏𝑥 2 − (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 = 0

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 v. 𝑎𝑏𝑥 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 (𝑥 − 1)
vi. (𝑏 − 𝑐)𝑥 2 + (𝑐 − 𝑎)𝑥 + (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 0
5. Find 𝑘 if the roots of the equation 3𝑘𝑥 2 = 4(𝑘𝑥 − 1) are real and equal.
6. For what value of 𝑚 are the roots of the equation 4𝑥 2 + (1 + 𝑚)𝑥 + 1 = 0 equal?
7. For what value of 𝑝 are the roots of the equation 𝑝(𝑥 2 + 1) = (2𝑝 + 1)𝑥 equal? Find
those equal roots.
8. If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real quantities, show that the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 2(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 +
2(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ) = 0 are imaginary.
1
9. If 𝑘 is real, show that the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 (𝑘 + ) + 3 = 0 are always
𝑘
real.
10. If the roots of the equation (𝑏 − 𝑐)𝑥 2 + (𝑐 − 𝑎)𝑥 + (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 0 are equal, then
prove that 𝑏 is the arithmetic mean between 𝑎 and 𝑐.
11. If the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are imaginary, show that the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 +
2(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + (𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐) = 0 are also imaginary.
12. The quadratic equation 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 occurs in vibration problems, where 𝑚 is
mass, 𝑐 is the damping factor and 𝑘 is the spring constant. Find the nature of roots and
also the roots when 𝑚 = 5, 𝑐 = 2, 𝑘 = 2.
13. Show that the equation (𝑏 − 𝑐)𝑥 2 + (𝑐 − 𝑎)𝑥 + (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 0 has rational roots.
14. Prove that the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 2(3𝑎 + 5)𝑥 + 2(9𝑎2 + 25) = 0 are
5
imaginary unless 𝑎 = then the roots are equal.
3
15. If the roots of the equation 𝑝𝑥 2 + 2𝑞𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 are imaginary, show that the roots of
the equation 𝑞𝑥 2 + (𝑞 − 𝑟)𝑥 − (𝑟 + 𝑝 − 𝑞) = 0 are real.
16. Prove that in general, the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 (𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 ) + 2𝑥(𝑎𝑝 + 𝑏𝑞) +
(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ) = 0 are imaginary. State the exceptional case, if any.
17. Without calculating the roots, find out the nature of roots of the quadratic equation:
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4 = 0 and 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7 = 0
18. Show that the roots of the equation (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) = ℎ2 are always real.
19. Show that the roots of (𝑏 − 𝑥)(𝑐 − 𝑥) + (𝑐 − 𝑥)(𝑎 − 𝑥) + (𝑎 − 𝑥)(𝑏 − 𝑥) = 0 are
real and they cannot be equal unless 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐.
20. Find the values of 𝑘 so that 𝑥 2 + 2(𝑘 + 1)𝑥 + 𝑘 2 = 0 will have equal roots.
21. Find the value of 𝑚 so that the equation 𝑚𝑥 2 + (𝑚 + 3)𝑥 + 4 = 0 may have equal
roots.
22. Find the values of 𝑚 for which the equation 𝑚2 𝑥 2 + 2(𝑚 + 1)𝑥 + 4 = 0 has equal
roots. Solve the equation when 𝑚 has these values.
23. Find the values of 𝑝 for which the equation 𝑥 2 + 2𝑝𝑥 + 3𝑝2 − 8𝑝 + 6 = 0 has equal
roots.
24. For what values of 𝑝 will the equation 4𝑥 2 + 12𝑝𝑥 + 8𝑝 + 1 = 0 have equal roots?
25. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, prove that 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑥 −
𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽).
26. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, find the values of:
i. 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 iv. 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 vi.
𝛼+𝛽
ii. 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 v. 𝛼 6 + 𝛽 6 𝛼 +𝛽 −1
−1

iii. 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3

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 vii. 𝛼 4𝛽7 + 𝛼 𝛽 ix. 𝛼3𝛽 −
viii. √ + 𝛼 √
𝛼 7𝛽4 𝛽 𝛽3𝛼
27. Find the value of 𝑘 if the product of the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + (𝑘 2 + 𝑘) =
0 is equal to the sum of the roots of the equation.
28. Find 𝑘 if −3 is one of the roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0. What is the other
root?
29. If one root of the equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑘𝑥 + 4𝑘 = 0 is twice the other, find the value of 𝑘.
30. If one root of the equation 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3𝑘 = 0 is twice the other, find the value of 𝑘.
31. If one root of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is twice the other, show that 2𝑏 2 = 9𝑎𝑐.
32. For what value of 𝑘 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 in the ratio 3: 1?
33. 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6 = 𝑘(𝑥 − 1)2 has roots in the ratio 2: 1, find 𝑘.
34. If the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are in the ratio 3: 4, show that 12𝑏 2 =
49𝑎𝑐.
35. If one root of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 is three times the other, show that 16𝑞 =
3𝑝2 .
𝛼 𝛽
36. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑙𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚 = 0, prove that √ + √ +
𝛽 𝛼

𝑚
√ 𝑙 = 0.
37. If the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 are consecutive numbers, show that
𝑝2 = 4𝑞 + 1.
(𝑚+1)2
38. If 𝑚 is the ratio of the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, show that 𝑚
=
4𝑏 2
4𝑎𝑐
.
39. Find the quadratic equations whose roots are:
i. 3 + √2 and 3 − √2
1 1
ii. and
3+√2 3−√2
40. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, find the equation whose
1 1
roots are ( + ) and 𝛼𝛽.
𝛼 𝛽
41. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 0, form the equation whose
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼+𝛽
roots are and .
𝛼 𝛽
42. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, form the equation whose
roots are 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 and 𝛼 −2 + 𝛽 −2.
43. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14 = 0, find the equation whose
roots are 𝛼 − 3 and 𝛽 − 3.
44. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, find the equation whose
roots are 𝛼 + 2 and 𝛽 + 2.
45. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 = 0, find the equation whose
roots are 𝛼 2 and 𝛽 2 .
46. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0, find the equation whose
5 5
roots are and .
𝛼 𝛽

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47. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0, find the equation whose
1−𝛼 1−𝛽
roots are and .
1+𝛼 1+𝛽
𝑘+1 2
48. If 𝑘 is the ratio of the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, prove that ( ) =
𝑘
𝑏2
𝑎𝑐
.
49. If one root of the equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑘𝑥 + 4𝑘 = 0 is twice the other, find the value of 𝑘.
50. If 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6 = 𝑘(𝑥 − 1)2 has roots in the ratio 2: 1, find the value of 𝑘.
51. If the sum of the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 be ′𝑚′ times their difference,
show that 𝑝2 (𝑚2 − 1) = 4𝑚2 𝑞.
52. Find the condition that the ratio between the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
may be 𝑚: 𝑛.
53. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 = 0, find the equation whose
roots are 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽.
54. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 = 0, find the equation whose
1 1
roots are and .
𝛼 𝛽
1 1 1
55. If the roots of the equation + = be equal in magnitude but opposite in
𝑥+𝑝 𝑥+𝑞 𝑟
1
signs, prove that the product of the roots is − (𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 ).
2
56. If the roots of 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 differ by unity, show that 𝑝2 + 4𝑞 2 = (1 + 2𝑞)2 .
57. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, find the equation whose
1 1
roots are 𝛼 and .
𝛽
58. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 5 = 0, find the equation whose
roots are 𝛼 2 and 𝛽 2 .
59. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 5 = 0, find the equation whose
roots are 𝛼 − 3 and 𝛽 − 3.
60. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 = 0, find the equation whose
1 1
roots are 𝛼 + and 𝛽 + 𝛼.
𝛽
61. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7 = 0, find the value of
1 1 1 1
(2𝛼 + ) (2𝛽 + 𝛼) and 𝛼3 + 𝛽3.
𝛽
62. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14 = 0, form the equation whose
𝛼2 𝛽2
roots are and .
𝛽 𝛼
63. Solve the following equations and sketch the graph of the function defined by the
polynomial on the left-hand side of the last equation:
i. 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
ii. 𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
iii. 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 39𝑥 + 20 = 0
64. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 10 is defined on the set of real numbers. Sketch its
graph, indicating the zeros, turning point, intercept on the vertical axis and the axis of
symmetry.
65. Determine the maximum value of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = 8𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 and the value of 𝑥
where it occurs.

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