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Also, please note that "Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry" is primarily a Class 11th chapter.
While its principles are foundational for Class 12th topics, the chapter itself isn't explicitly
covered again in Class 12th. I will focus on the Class 11th content as it forms the bedrock.
Here are comprehensive notes on "Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry" designed for JEE
self-study:
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry - JEE Self-Study
Notes
This chapter is the foundation of physical chemistry. Master it, and you'll find the rest of the
syllabus much easier. Don't skip or rush through any topic.
1. Importance of Chemistry
● Chemistry: The branch of science that deals with the composition, structure, properties,
and reactions of matter.
● Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
2. Classification of Matter
Matter can be classified in two main ways:
2.1. Physical Classification (States of Matter)
● Solid:
○ Definite shape and volume.
○ Particles are closely packed in fixed positions.
○ Strong intermolecular forces.
○ Incompressible.
● Liquid:
○ No definite shape (takes shape of container), but definite volume.
○ Particles are close but can move past each other.
○ Weaker intermolecular forces than solids.
○ Slightly compressible.
● Gas:
○ No definite shape or volume (fills entire container).
○ Particles are far apart and move randomly.
○ Very weak intermolecular forces.
○ Highly compressible.
● (Beyond JEE Scope for this chapter, but good to know: Plasma and Bose-Einstein
Condensate)
2.2. Chemical Classification
Matter can be broadly classified into Mixtures and Pure Substances.
● 2.2.1. Mixtures:
○ Contain two or more pure substances mixed together in any proportion.
○ Components retain their individual properties.
○ Can be separated by physical methods.
○ Homogeneous Mixture: Uniform composition throughout. E.g., salt solution, air.
○ Heterogeneous Mixture: Non-uniform composition; components are visible
separately. E.g., sand and water, oil and water.
● 2.2.2. Pure Substances:
○ Have a fixed and definite composition.
○ Properties are constant.
○ Cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical methods.
○ Elements:
■ Pure substances made up of only one type of atom.
■ Cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means.
■ Examples: H, O, Fe, Au.
■ Categorized as Metals, Non-metals, Metalloids.
○ Compounds:
■ Pure substances formed when two or more elements combine chemically in a
fixed ratio by mass.
■ Properties are entirely different from their constituent elements.
■ Can be broken down into simpler substances (elements) by chemical
methods.
■ Examples: H$_2O, CO_2$, NaCl.
3. Properties of Matter and Their Measurement
● Physical Properties: Can be measured or observed without changing the identity or
composition of the substance. E.g., color, odor, melting point, boiling point, density.
● Chemical Properties: Describe how a substance reacts with other substances, involving
a chemical change. E.g., acidity, basicity, flammability, reactivity with water.
3.1. International System of Units (SI Units)
● A standardized system of units for scientific measurements.
● Base SI Units:
○ Length: meter (m)
○ Mass: kilogram (kg)
○ Time: second (s)
○ Electric Current: ampere (A)
○ Temperature: kelvin (K)
○ Amount of substance: mole (mol)
○ Luminous intensity: candela (cd)
● Derived Units: Combinations of base units. E.g., Density (kg/m$^3$), Volume (m$^3$),
Speed (m/s).
3.2. Prefixes in SI System
Used to denote multiples and submultiples of units.
● Giga (G): 10^9
● Mega (M): 10^6
● Kilo (k): 10^3
● Deci (d): 10^{-1}
● Centi (c): 10^{-2}
● Milli (m): 10^{-3}
● Micro (\mu): 10^{-6}
● Nano (n): 10^{-9}
● Pico (p): 10^{-12}
● Femto (f): 10^{-15}
3.3. Mass and Weight
● Mass: The amount of matter present in a substance. Constant everywhere. SI unit:
kilogram (kg).
● Weight: The force exerted by gravity on an object. Varies with gravitational pull.
3.4. Volume
● The amount of space occupied by a substance.
● Common units: m$^3$, cm$^3$, L (liter), mL (milliliter).
● Conversion: 1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm$^3$ = 1 dm$^3$. Also, 1 m$^3$ = 1000 L.
3.5. Density
● Mass per unit volume.
● Formula: Density (d) = Mass (m) / Volume (V)
● SI unit: kg/m$^3$. Common laboratory unit: g/cm$^3$ or g/mL.
3.6. Temperature
● A measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of an object.
● Common scales:
○ Celsius (^\circC): Water freezes at 0$^\circC, boils at 100^\circ$C.
○ Fahrenheit (^\circF): Water freezes at 32$^\circF, boils at 212^\circ$F.
○ Kelvin (K): Absolute temperature scale. 0 K is absolute zero.
● Conversions:
○ K = ^\circC + 273.15
○ ^\circF = (9/5) ^\circC + 32
○ ^\circC = (5/9) (^\circF - 32)
4. Uncertainty in Measurement
4.1. Scientific Notation
● Used to represent very large or very small numbers compactly.
● Form: N \times 10^n, where N is a number between 1 and 10, and n is an integer.
● E.g., 0.000000000000167 g = 1.67 \times 10^{-13} g
● E.g., 602200000000000000000000 = 6.022 \times 10^{23}
4.2. Significant Figures (Sig Figs)
● Digits in a measurement that are known with certainty plus one estimated digit.
● Indicate the precision of a measurement.
● Rules for determining significant figures:
1. All non-zero digits are significant. (e.g., 285 cm has 3 sig figs)
2. Zeros preceding the first non-zero digit are not significant (leading zeros). (e.g.,
0.003 cm has 1 sig fig)
3. Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant (captive zeros). (e.g., 2.005 cm
has 4 sig figs)
4. Zeros at the end or right of a number are significant if they are on the right side of
the decimal point (trailing zeros with a decimal). (e.g., 0.200 g has 3 sig figs, 50.0
cm has 3 sig figs)
5. Trailing zeros in a whole number without a decimal point may or may not be
significant. Use scientific notation to remove ambiguity. (e.g., 100 could be 1, 2, or 3
sig figs. 1.00 \times 10^2 has 3 sig figs).
6. Exact numbers (from definitions or counting) have infinite significant figures. (e.g., 1
dozen = 12 eggs, speed of light).
● Rules for arithmetic operations with significant figures:
1. Addition/Subtraction: The result should have the same number of decimal places
as the measurement with the fewest decimal places.
■ Example: 2.34 + 0.5 = 2.84 -> 2.8 (0.5 has 1 decimal place)
2. Multiplication/Division: The result should have the same number of significant
figures as the measurement with the fewest significant figures.
■ Example: 2.5 \times 1.25 = 3.125 -> 3.1 (2.5 has 2 sig figs)
4.3. Dimensional Analysis (Factor-Label Method)
● A powerful technique for converting units.
● Uses conversion factors to cancel out unwanted units and obtain desired units.
● Example: Convert 5 km to meters.
○ 5 \text{ km} \times \frac{1000 \text{ m}}{1 \text{ km}} = 5000 \text{ m}
5. Laws of Chemical Combination
These fundamental laws govern how elements combine to form compounds.
● 5.1. Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier):
○ "Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction."
○ Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products.
○ This law is the basis for balancing chemical equations.
● 5.2. Law of Definite Proportions / Constant Composition (Proust):
○ "A given chemical compound always contains the same elements combined
together in the same fixed proportion by mass, irrespective of its source or method
of preparation."
○ Example: Water (H$_2$O) always contains Hydrogen and Oxygen in a 1:8 mass
ratio (2g H : 16g O).
● 5.3. Law of Multiple Proportions (Dalton):
○ "When two elements combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one
element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in a simple whole
number ratio."
○ Example: Carbon and Oxygen form CO and CO$_2$.
■ In CO: 12g C combines with 16g O (C:O = 1:1.33)
■ In CO$_2$: 12g C combines with 32g O (C:O = 1:2.66)
■ Ratio of oxygen masses (16:32) with fixed carbon is 1:2, a simple whole
number ratio.
● 5.4. Gay-Lussac's Law of Gaseous Volumes:
○ "When gases react together, they do so in volumes which bear a simple whole
number ratio to one another, and to the volumes of the gaseous products, provided
all volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure."
○ Example: H$_2$(g) + Cl$_2$(g) \rightarrow 2HCl(g)
■ 1 volume of H$_2$ reacts with 1 volume of Cl$_2$ to produce 2 volumes of
HCl. (Volume ratio 1:1:2)
● 5.5. Avogadro's Law:
○ "Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain an
equal number of molecules."
○ This implies that volume is directly proportional to the number of moles (or
molecules) of a gas at constant T and P.
○ V \propto n
6. Dalton's Atomic Theory
● Postulates (some modified later):
1. Matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms. (Later: atoms are divisible into
subatomic particles)
2. Atoms of the same element are identical in all respects (size, shape, mass, etc.).
(Later: Isotopes exist)
3. Atoms of different elements are different in all respects.
4. Atoms combine in simple whole number ratios to form compounds.
5. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. (Consistent with
Law of Conservation of Mass)
● Limitations: Could not explain the existence of isotopes, isobars, subatomic particles, or
why atoms combine in certain ratios.
7. Atomic Mass and Molecular Mass
7.1. Atomic Mass
● Atomic Mass Unit (amu) / Unified Mass (u): Defined as 1/12th the mass of an atom of
Carbon-12 isotope.
○ 1 amu = 1.66056 \times 10^{-24} g
● Relative Atomic Mass: The mass of an atom relative to 1/12th the mass of a Carbon-12
atom.
● Average Atomic Mass: For elements having isotopes, it's the weighted average of the
atomic masses of its naturally occurring isotopes.
○ Average Atomic Mass = \Sigma (isotopic mass \times fractional abundance)
○ Example: Chlorine has two isotopes, $^{35}$Cl (75.77% abundance, mass 34.9689
amu) and $^{37}$Cl (24.23% abundance, mass 36.9659 amu).
■ Average Atomic Mass of Cl = (0.7577 \times 34.9689) + (0.2423 \times
36.9659) = 35.453 amu
7.2. Molecular Mass
● The sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms present in a molecule.
● Calculated by adding the atomic masses of all atoms as given in the chemical formula.
● Example: Molecular mass of CH$_4$ = (1 \times Atomic mass of C) + (4 \times Atomic
mass of H)
○ = (1 \times 12.011 u) + (4 \times 1.008 u) = 16.043 u
7.3. Formula Mass
● Used for ionic compounds (which don't form discrete molecules but exist as a crystal
lattice).
● It's the sum of the atomic masses of the ions present in the formula unit of the ionic
compound.
● Example: Formula mass of NaCl = (1 \times Atomic mass of Na) + (1 \times Atomic mass
of Cl)
○ = (1 \times 22.99 u) + (1 \times 35.45 u) = 58.44 u
8. Mole Concept
This is the most crucial concept in the chapter. Master it!
● Mole (mol): The SI unit for amount of substance.
○ One mole is the amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities
(atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, etc.) as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of
the Carbon-12 isotope.
● Avogadro's Number (N_A): The number of entities in one mole.
○ N_A = 6.022 \times 10^{23} entities/mol
○ So, 1 mole of H$_2O molecules = 6.022 $\times$ $10^{23}$ H_2$O molecules
○ 1 mole of Na atoms = 6.022 \times 10^{23} Na atoms
8.1. Molar Mass
● The mass of one mole of a substance.
● Numerically equal to its atomic mass, molecular mass, or formula mass, but expressed in
grams per mole (g/mol).
● Example:
○ Atomic mass of C = 12.011 u \Rightarrow Molar mass of C = 12.011 g/mol
○ Molecular mass of H$_2O = 18.015 u $\Rightarrow$ Molar mass of H_2$O =
18.015 g/mol
8.2. Key Relationships in Mole Concept
You MUST be able to interconvert these:
● Number of moles (n) = Mass of substance (m) / Molar mass (M)
○ n = m/M
● Number of moles (n) = Number of particles (N) / Avogadro's Number (N_A)
○ n = N/N_A
● For gases at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure):
○ 1 mole of any gas occupies 22.4 L at STP.
○ STP conditions: 0$^\circ$C (273.15 K) and 1 atm pressure.
○ Number of moles (n) = Volume of gas at STP (V_{STP}) / 22.4 L/mol
○ Note: For JEE, often NTP (Normal Temperature and Pressure:
20$^\circ$C/293.15K, 1 atm) is not used unless specified. If not specified, assume
STP.
8.3. Calculations Involving Mole Concept (Practice heavily!)
● Calculating moles from mass: How many moles are in 36 g of H$_2$O?
○ Molar mass H$_2$O = 18 g/mol
○ Moles = 36 g / 18 g/mol = 2 mol
● Calculating mass from moles: What is the mass of 0.5 mol of CO$_2$?
○ Molar mass CO$_2$ = 12 + 2*16 = 44 g/mol
○ Mass = 0.5 mol * 44 g/mol = 22 g
● Calculating number of particles from moles: How many molecules are in 0.1 mol of
O$_2$?
○ Molecules = 0.1 mol * 6.022 \times 10^{23} molecules/mol = 6.022 \times 10^{22}
molecules
● Calculating volume of gas at STP: What volume does 0.25 mol of N$_2$ occupy at
STP?
○ Volume = 0.25 mol * 22.4 L/mol = 5.6 L
9. Percentage Composition
● The percentage by mass of each element present in a compound.
● Formula:
○ \text{Percentage of an element} = \frac{\text{Mass of that element in the
compound}}{\text{Molar mass of the compound}} \times 100\%
● Example: Find the percentage composition of water (H$_2$O).
○ Molar mass H$_2$O = 18.015 g/mol
○ Mass of H in H$_2$O = 2 \times 1.008 = 2.016 g
○ Mass of O in H$_2$O = 1 \times 16.00 = 16.00 g
○ % H = (2.016 / 18.015) \times 100 = 11.19%
○ % O = (16.00 / 18.015) \times 100 = 88.81% (or 100 - 11.19)
10. Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula
● Empirical Formula: Represents the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms present in a
compound.
● Molecular Formula: Represents the actual number of atoms of each element present in
one molecule of the compound.
● Relationship: Molecular Formula = (Empirical \ Formula)_n
○ Where n = \frac{\text{Molecular Mass}}{\text{Empirical Formula Mass}}
○ n must be a whole number (1, 2, 3...).
● Steps to determine Empirical and Molecular Formula:
1. Convert percentage composition to grams: Assume 100 g of the compound.
2. Convert grams to moles: Divide each element's mass by its atomic mass.
3. Find the simplest mole ratio: Divide all mole values by the smallest mole value
obtained.
4. Write the Empirical Formula: If the ratios are not whole numbers, multiply by a
suitable integer to get whole numbers.
5. Determine Molecular Formula (if molecular mass is given):
■ Calculate the Empirical Formula Mass.
■ Calculate n = \frac{\text{Molecular Mass}}{\text{Empirical Formula Mass}}.
■ Multiply the subscripts in the empirical formula by n.
● Example (Conceptual): A compound has 40% C, 6.7% H, and 53.3% O. Its molecular
mass is 60 g/mol.
1. Assume 100 g: 40 g C, 6.7 g H, 53.3 g O
2. Moles:
■ C: 40/12 = 3.33 mol
■ H: 6.7/1 = 6.7 mol
■ O: 53.3/16 = 3.33 mol
3. Simplest ratio (divide by 3.33):
■ C: 3.33/3.33 = 1
■ H: 6.7/3.33 \approx 2
■ O: 3.33/3.33 = 1
4. Empirical Formula = CH$_2$O
5. Empirical Formula Mass = 12 + 2(1) + 16 = 30 g/mol
■ n = \frac{60}{30} = 2
■ Molecular Formula = (CH_2O)_2 = C$_2H_4O_2$
11. Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations
● Stoichiometry: The study of the quantitative relationships between reactants and
products in a balanced chemical equation.
● Stoichiometric Coefficients: The numbers in front of chemical formulas in a balanced
equation, representing the relative number of moles (or molecules/volumes for gases) of
reactants and products.
● Balanced Chemical Equation: Essential for stoichiometric calculations, as it adheres to
the Law of Conservation of Mass.
● Steps for Stoichiometric Calculations:
1. Write a balanced chemical equation. (Crucial first step!)
2. Convert known quantities (mass, volume, particles) of reactants/products to
moles.
3. Use mole ratio from the balanced equation to find the moles of the desired
reactant/product.
4. Convert moles back to the required quantities (mass, volume, particles).
● Example: How many grams of water are produced when 4.0 g of H$_2$ reacts with
excess O$_2$?
1. Balanced equation: 2H$_2$(g) + O$_2$(g) \rightarrow 2H$_2$O(l)
2. Convert H$_2$ mass to moles:
■ Molar mass H$_2$ = 2 g/mol
■ Moles H$_2$ = 4.0 g / 2 g/mol = 2.0 mol
3. Use mole ratio: From the equation, 2 moles of H$_2$ produce 2 moles of H$_2$O.
■ So, 2.0 mol H$_2$ will produce 2.0 mol H$_2$O.
4. Convert H$_2$O moles to mass:
■ Molar mass H$_2$O = 18 g/mol
■ Mass H$_2$O = 2.0 mol \times 18 g/mol = 36 g
12. Limiting Reactant (or Limiting Reagent)
● The reactant that is completely consumed during a chemical reaction.
● It determines the maximum amount of product that can be formed.
● The other reactant(s) are in excess.
● Steps to identify Limiting Reactant:
1. Balance the chemical equation.
2. Convert the given masses of all reactants to moles.
3. Divide the moles of each reactant by its stoichiometric coefficient from the
balanced equation.
4. The reactant that yields the smallest value from step 3 is the limiting reactant.
5. Use the limiting reactant's moles (and its stoichiometric coefficient) to calculate
the amount of product formed.
● Example: If 10 g of H$_2$ reacts with 64 g of O$_2$ to form water.
1. Balanced equation: 2H$_2$(g) + O$_2$(g) \rightarrow 2H$_2$O(l)
2. Convert to moles:
■ Moles H$_2$ = 10 g / 2 g/mol = 5 mol
■ Moles O$_2$ = 64 g / 32 g/mol = 2 mol
3. Divide by stoichiometric coefficients:
■ For H$_2$: 5 mol / 2 = 2.5
■ For O$_2$: 2 mol / 1 = 2
4. Limiting Reactant: Since 2 < 2.5, O$_2$ is the limiting reactant.
5. Calculate product (H$_2O) based on O_2$:
■ From equation: 1 mol O$_2$ produces 2 mol H$_2$O
■ So, 2 mol O$_2$ will produce 4 mol H$_2$O.
■ Mass H$_2$O = 4 mol \times 18 g/mol = 72 g
13. Yield of Reaction
● Theoretical Yield: The maximum amount of product that can be formed from a given
amount of reactants, assuming 100% reaction efficiency (calculated stoichiometrically).
● Actual Yield: The amount of product actually obtained from a reaction in the laboratory. It
is always less than or equal to the theoretical yield due to various reasons (side reactions,
incomplete reactions, loss during purification).
● Percentage Yield: A measure of the efficiency of a reaction.
○ \text{Percentage Yield} = \frac{\text{Actual Yield}}{\text{Theoretical Yield}} \times
100\%
14. Concentration Terms (for Solutions)
● Solution: Homogeneous mixture of two or more components.
○ Solute: Component present in smaller quantity.
○ Solvent: Component present in larger quantity (usually water for aqueous
solutions).
14.1. Mass Percentage (\% \ w/w)
● \text{Mass Percentage of component} = \frac{\text{Mass of component}}{\text{Total mass
of solution}} \times 100\%
14.2. Volume Percentage (\% \ v/v)
● \text{Volume Percentage of component} = \frac{\text{Volume of component}}{\text{Total
volume of solution}} \times 100\%
14.3. Mass by Volume Percentage (\% \ w/v)
● \text{Mass by Volume Percentage} = \frac{\text{Mass of solute (g)}}{\text{Volume of
solution (mL)}} \times 100\%
○ (Common in pharmacy and medicine)
14.4. Parts Per Million (ppm) / Parts Per Billion (ppb)
● Used for very dilute solutions.
● \text{ppm} = \frac{\text{Mass of solute}}{\text{Mass of solution}} \times 10^6
● \text{ppb} = \frac{\text{Mass of solute}}{\text{Mass of solution}} \times 10^9
14.5. Molarity (M)
● Most common unit in chemistry labs for volumetric calculations.
● Molarity (M) = Moles of solute / Volume of solution (in Liters)
● Units: mol/L or M
● Temperature dependent because volume changes with temperature.
● Formula: M = \frac{n_{solute}}{V_{solution (L)}}
● Dilution Formula: M_1V_1 = M_2V_2 (where 1 refers to initial, 2 refers to final)
○ This formula applies when adding only solvent to dilute a solution, moles of solute
remain constant.
14.6. Molality (m)
● Molality (m) = Moles of solute / Mass of solvent (in kg)
● Units: mol/kg or m
● Temperature independent because mass does not change with temperature.
● Formula: m = \frac{n_{solute}}{mass_{solvent (kg)}}
14.7. Mole Fraction (\chi)
● Mole fraction of a component = Moles of that component / Total moles of all
components in the solution
● Sum of mole fractions of all components in a solution is always 1.
● \chi_A = \frac{n_A}{n_A + n_B} ; \chi_B = \frac{n_B}{n_A + n_B}
● \chi_A + \chi_B = 1
● Units: Dimensionless (ratio of moles).
JEE Preparation Strategy for "Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry":
1. Understand the "Why": Don't just memorize formulas. Understand why we use moles,
why balancing equations is important, etc.
2. Practice Conversions: Mole concept is all about interconversion. Practice converting
mass to moles, moles to particles, moles to volume (for gases), etc., until it's second
nature.
3. Master Stoichiometry: This is the core. Solve as many problems as possible involving
balanced equations, calculating product amounts, and limiting reactants.
4. Significant Figures and Dimensional Analysis: These are not just "rules"; they are
crucial for getting the correct answer and understanding precision in experiments. Apply
them diligently in all your calculations.
5. Concentration Terms: Understand the definitions and applications of Molarity, Molality,
and Mole Fraction. Be able to convert between them. This is a very common area for
tricky JEE questions.
6. Conceptual Questions: Be prepared for questions that test your understanding of the
definitions and laws (e.g., distinguishing between homogeneous/heterogeneous,
identifying empirical vs. molecular formula characteristics).
7. Previous Year Questions (PYQs): Once you've gone through the notes and solved
examples, immediately start solving PYQs from JEE Main and Advanced. This will give
you an idea of the question patterns and difficulty level.
8. Regular Revision: This chapter is foundational. Keep revisiting it throughout your 11th
and 12th grade studies, as its concepts are applied everywhere.
Self-Study Tip: After reading a section, try to explain it in your own words or derive a formula. If
you can teach it, you understand it. Solve problems immediately after learning a concept to
reinforce your understanding.
Good luck with your JEE preparation! You can definitely achieve your goal through dedicated
self-study.
