734

Inertial effects on fluid flow through

manifolds of internal combustion engines
M Bordjane1*, D Chalet2, M Abidat1, and P Chessé2
1
Laboratoire de Mécanique Appliquée, Faculté de Génie Mécanique, USTO-MB, El M’Naour-Oran, Algerie
2
Internal Combustion Engine Team, Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics – UMR CNRS 6598, Ecole Centrale de Nantes BP
92101, Nantes, France

The manuscript was received on 17 July 2010 and was accepted after revision for publication on 17 March 2011.

DOI: 10.1177/0957650911406334

Abstract: The flows in intake and exhaust manifolds of internal combustion engines play a
major role in determining the different (volumetric, scavenging, and trapping) efficiencies, indi-
cated power, performance, and emissions and in establishing the flow field within the engine
cylinder. When the gas flows unsteadily through these systems, friction, pressure, and inertial
forces are present. The relative importance of these forces depends on gas velocity and the size
and shape of such systems. Traditionally, these flows are studied by means of the one dimen-
sional (1D) gas dynamics equations, where the 3D phenomenon of the flow and the pressure
wave’s deformation, turbulence, and viscosity are ignored or neglected. The thermodynamic (0D)
approach is also used where the important effect of fluid inertia related to the size of manifold
components is ignored. In this study, the filling and emptying method is completely revised and a
new method, based on the thermodynamic formulation of the filling and emptying and on the
fundamental equation of momentum conservation, is developed. The objective is then to take
into account the fluid inertial effects on the fluid behaviour without the use of a one-dimensional
1D code (due to the computational times). In this objective, a computational fluid dynamics
analysis is made in order to calculate the tuning parameters of the ‘inertial capacitive method’
corresponding to the new model. In this study, it appears that the ignored inertial effects from the
formulation of the filling and emptying method is the reason why theis latter becomes only
appropriate for the compact manifolds. To validate the new model, experimental investigation
is carried out on a single-cylinder four-stroke engine. The volumetric efficiency of the engine is
then calculated with the new model. The result is compared to the experimental one and a correct
agreement is obtained.

Keywords: internal combustion engines, intake and exhaust systems, filling and emptying
method, CFD simulation, fluid inertia effects, modelling

1 INTRODUCTION early studies were focused on the unsteady flow in

intake and exhaust manifolds to increase maximum
The literature related to the study of gas dynamics in specific power outputs which is always the objective
engine manifolds appears to originate from the for automotive engines. When the design criterion
beginning of the twentieth century [1, 2]. These becomes more important, the intake system is
tuned to provide high torque at low speeds so that a
*Corresponding author: Laboratoire de Mécanique Appliquée, higher overall gear ratio can be employed.
Faculté de Génie Mécanique, USTO-MB, B.P.1505 El M’Naour- The dynamic behaviour of gas in intake systems is
Oran, Algerie. explained by classifying it into the pulsating and the
email: mbordjane@[Link] inertia charging effects. Actually, it is preferable to

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 Inertial effects on fluid flow through manifolds of internal combustion engines 735

predict numerically the performance due to pipe turbocharged diesel engines, in which the filling pro-
tuning than the experimental procedure (cut and try cess is mainly affected by boost pressure and the
method) which is very troublesome because of its output torque is essentially governed by the amount
complication or heavy cost [3]. Designers have long of fuel injected. However, in spark ignition engines,
been aware that the geometry of the intake and the output torque of the engine is determined by the
exhaust manifolds substantially affects the perfor- amount of the intake air. Hence, our interest resides
mance of reciprocating engines [2, 4]. Induction sys- in the nature of the flows in the intake and the exhaust
tems can be ‘tuned’ to give improved cylinder manifolds which govern the filling process rather
charging at a particular engine speed and variable than the intake pressure level which remains close
geometry manifolds exploit this phenomenon in to the atmospheric one.
enhancing volumetric efficiency across the whole Furthermore, it is clear that there are many situa-
speed range [5]. tions in which the very detailed flow descriptions
The earliest method used for solving the equations associated with wave action and internal flow
defining unsteady flow in the intake and exhaust sys- approaches are not required. Under such circum-
tems of internal combustion engines is the method of stances, a simpler approach, which, with acceptable
characteristics developed by Riemann [6]. However, reduction in accuracy will yield valid performance
the major difficulty when using this method to calcu- predictions (including cyclically varying phenomena
late unsteady flow is its non-conservative character, such as exhaust or inlet manifold pressure), becomes
and hence, the mass calculated as flowing into the beneficial in terms of initial programming effort and
engine is not always equal to that flowing out. This in greatly reducing computing times and costs [8].
method is based on the non-conservation law form of Hence, based on the thermodynamic formulation of
the governing equations. the filling and emptying method and the fundamental
Furthermore, this technique is not adapted in order equation of momentum conservation to account for
to study the ‘jump’ conditions across shock waves fluid inertial effects, a new method named ‘inertial
and contact surfaces as it is only first-order accurate capacitive method’ (ICM) is developed. This
[3]. The mathematical treatment of unsteady flow method, or model, gives the possibility to describe
process by this method becomes increasingly com- the air mass flow evolution in a pipe system as a func-
plex as it is influenced by many parameters. In the tion of the pressure evolution. As a consequence, sec-
same time, the mathematical description of the tion 2 of this article describes the inertial capacitive
boundary conditions (represented by many compo- model. In section 3, the ANSYS-CFX computational
nents of the engine and their inclusion in the com- fluid dynamics (CFD) code is used in order to estab-
plete unsteady flow calculation scheme) leads to lish the tuning parameters (TPs) and to compare the
computations which again become extremely com- three-dimensional (3D) results to the new model
plex and require more computer storage. results. The 1D code used in the Laboratory of
Filling and emptying method is used extensively Fluids Mechanics in reference [9] is also presented
throughout the industry for the design of engines in a third part. Section 4 presents the construction
and manifolds [7]. Despite their inability to predict of the model by an integration of the physical phe-
gas dynamics, filling and emptying techniques are nomena in the TPs. The model is used to determine
substantially more accurate and information rich the volumetric efficiency of an engine and the results
than quasi-steady models. However, for engines are compared to the experimental ones in section 5,
with short inlet and exhaust pipes, which is generally and finally, the conclusion is presented in section 6.
the case, where the (length/diameter) ratio in engine
manifolds is small compared to that in other situa- 2 MATHEMATICAL MODELS: THE INERTIAL
tions, it is possible to study the flow through a ‘filling- CAPACITIVE MODEL
and-emptying’ analysis in which simple results are
obtained by applying the laws of thermodynamics In the ‘filling-and-emptying’ method, the intake and
to a control volume [7]. For the intake and exhaust exhaust manifolds are represented by capacitive ele-
systems, the filling and emptying model may be an ments in which the volume corresponds to the entire
attractive technique because of its simplicity. It con- intake or exhaust system and all the flow restrictions
sists of assuming a fixed volume for each manifold of these systems are carried out by means of induced
and follows their time evolution with some spatial pressure losses, as depicted in Fig. 1.
average for the thermodynamic variables. However, Therefore, the important effect of fluid flow inertia
the travelling waves in the manifolds are not repre- related to the length of the runners or tubes of man-
sented due to the spatial averaging [5]. This method ifolds is ignored. The method is unable to imitate the
is appropriate for performance predictions of effects of detailed changes in manifold geometry on

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736 M Bordjane, D Chalet, M Abidat, and P Chessé

SIE SCE
(a) - Capacitive element

Exhaust
receiver
receiver

Inertia element
Inlet

Cylinder
Flow restriction Ps (t)
Pe (t)

Filling and emptying method description Prec

(b) L

Exhaust
plenum
plenum

volume

volume
Inlet

Exh.
Inl.

Cylinder : Inertial element

: Capacitive element

Inertia-capacitive method description Fig. 2 Schematic representation of the ICM

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the differences

between filling and emptying method and ICM
flowrate, respectively, out of the receiver (capaci-
tive element).
2. From the first law of thermodynamics applied to
the engine performance [5]; also, this method is
an open system, the energy equation is obtained
unable to distinguish between two configurations of
circuits with different geometries that exhibit identi- dTrec  1   Trec dmrec
¼  qe ðtÞ  he  qs ðtÞ  hs   ð2Þ
cal global volumes. Hence, in this study, an evolution dt r0 :mrec mrec dt
is added to take into account the inertia of fluids in where Trec is the gas temperature in the receiver
the intake and exhaust manifolds. Hence, an accurate (capacitive element),he the mass magnitude of
investigation on the effects of flows in such systems the total enthalpy (of the entry flow) into the pipe
may be carried out in which the effects of fluid inertia (inertial element), hs the mass magnitude of the
in the different elements are considered. The princi- total enthalpy (of the leaving flow) out of the recei-
ple consists of describing the intake and exhaust sys- ver (capacitive element), r0 the specific gas con-
tems as a combination of capacitive elements stant, and g the specific heat ratio.
calculated by the ‘filling-and-emptying’ method and 3. The ideal gas state equation is given by
inertia elements characterized by the inertia coeffi-
prec  Vrec ¼ mrec  r0  Trec ð3Þ
cients designed using the ratio between the cross-sec-
tional area (S) and the length of the tube (L), by where Vrec is the volume of gas in the receiver
applying the fundamental equation of momentum (capacitive element).
conservation. In the two cases and for all the flow 4. From the fundamental equation of momentum
restrictions between capacitive and inertia elements, conservation, the mass flowrate of the inflow is
Bernoulli’s equation is used to calculate the different given by equation (4). This equation is obtained
losses generated [9]. Numerical studies are carried in order to establish a relationship between the
out on a single tube (inertia element), where a recei- pressure and the air mass flowrate
ver (capacitive element) is used at the right end of the dqe ðt Þ SIE  
tube with a capacity equal to the tube’s volume, as ¼  pe ðt Þ  prec ðtÞ ð4Þ
dt L
depicted in Fig. 2.
where pe(t) is the instantaneous pressure at the
The modelling supposes an ideal and non-viscous
inlet of the pipe (inertial element), prec(t) the
fluid inside a constant area duct. The flow is assumed
instantaneous pressure in the receiver (capacitive
to be adiabatic. The tube is defined by a length (L) and
element), SIE the cross-sectional area of the pipe
a diameter (D). The basic equations used in this
(inertial element), and L the length of inertial
model are presented as follows.
element.
1. From the principle of conservation of mass, the 5. The mass flowrate of the outflow qs(t) is calculated
continuity equation is obtained with the Barré Saint Venant equations [10]. These
are presented in the case of a flow from the left to
dmrec dme dms
¼  ¼ qe ðtÞ  qs ðt Þ ð1Þ the right. When the pressure ratio is less than the
dt dt dt
critical value given by equation (5)
where mrec is the mass of gas within the receiver  
(capacitive element), me and qe(t) the mass of gas prec  þ 1 1
¼ ð5Þ
and instantaneous mass flowrate, respectively, ps 2
into the pipe (inertial element), and ms and qs(t) where ps is the pressure at the exit of the receiver
are the mass of gas and instantaneous mass (capacitive element).

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 Inertial effects on fluid flow through manifolds of internal combustion engines 737

The flow is subsonic and the mass flowrate is thermal conduction. In our studies, the model of
obtained by equation (6) total energy equation implemented in the ANSYS-
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
" #ffi CFX CFD code is used. This may experience robust-
u 2  þ1
SCE  prec u 2   p p 
ness problems due to the pressure transient and the
qs ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  t
rec rec
 
r0  Trec ð  1Þ ps ps (p/) contribution to enthalpy. The governing equa-
ð6Þ tions for an unsteady 3D, compressible non-viscous
flow in conservation form are given below.
where SCE is the cross-sectional area at the exit of
the receiver (capacitive element). 1. Continuity equation
6. Otherwise (choked flow), it is obtained by @ ~Þ¼0
þ r  ðU ð8Þ
equation (7) @t
  þ1 Where U ~ ¼ u~i þ v~j þ w k~
~ is the velocity vector; U
SCE  prec 2   2ð1Þ
qs ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi    ð7Þ and  the vector operator: r ¼ @x@ ~i þ @y@ ~j þ @z@ k~
r0  Trec ð  1Þ
2. Momentum equation
The thermodynamic characteristics of the fluid @ ðU ~Þ
~ U
þ r  ðU ~ Þ ¼ rp ð9Þ
(gas), (Cp, h, and g) are estimated by expressions @t
using calculation charts of Keenan and Kayes [11]. where  is the dyadic operator which denotes the
The fourth-order Runge–Kutta method is used to ~ U
tensor product of two vectors; U ~
solve numerically the energy balance (temperature 3. Energy equation
equation) and mass balance (continuity equation).
The numerical integration of the mass flowrate equa- @ ðH Þ @p ~ HÞ ¼ 0
 þ r  ðU ð10Þ
@t @t
tion is approximated by Taylor’s explicit method. The
initial state of flow is stationary at time t ¼ 0, so the ini- where H is the total enthalpy
tial pressure pi0 ¼ 1 bar, the velocity V ¼ 0, and the H ¼ h þ 12 U 2 ¼ ðe þ p Þ þ 12 U 2
initial temperature Ti0 ¼ 293 K. To create a pulse
The system is described by five equations for six
flow similar to that occurring in intake and exhaust
flow variables (, p, u, v, w, and H). For an ideal gas,
manifolds, the inlet pressure is specified in the form
the equation of state (thermal equation of state) is
of a sinusoidal function: pe(t) ¼ pe0 þ dpe  sin(2  p
described as a function of both temperature and
.ne.t), where n represents the frequencies 10, 25, 50,
pressure
75, and 100 Hz, pe0 ¼ 1 bar, dpe ¼ 0.05 bar, and t ¼ 0.2
s. The inlet temperature is set constant and equal to M0 :p
 ¼ ð p, T Þ ¼ ð11Þ
Te ¼ 293 K. At the outlet of the configuration (receiver R0 T
outflow), the pressure and temperature are specified where M0 is the molecular weight (mass) of the gas
as follows: ps ¼ 1 bar and Ts ¼ 393 K. and R0 the universal gas constant.
Equation (11) provides a sixth equation, but it also
3 CFD 3D MODEL introduces a seventh unknown, namely the tempera-
ture T. A seventh equation can be used if the fluid is
The evolution of computers and the possibility of per- considered to be an ideal gas
forming ‘numerical’ experiments may provide a new
dh ¼ Cp ðT ÞdT ð12Þ
way of designing internal combustion engines.
Recently, however, multidimensional models have The model of total energy equation calculates the
been used to analyse the flow through intake valves total enthalpy directly and the static enthalpy is
and manifolds. These models provide qualitative and derived from the expression of H¼f(h, U). Basically,
quantitative information and account for the tempo- it is necessary to descretize the governing equations
ral and spatial variations of gas exchange processes to form a set of algebraic relationships which can then
and flows in manifolds [12]. In this context, the 3D be solved on a computer. The governing equations
ANSYS-CFX commercial CFD code is used to deter- define the propagation of information through the
mine the TPs and to validate the ICM. fluid in the system in question, in our case the pres-
The non-viscous flow is that where the dissipative, sure (p) and mass flowrate (Q). It contains all the
transport phenomena of viscosity, mass diffusion, information required to determine the inertial effects
and thermal conductivity are neglected [13, 14]. of the fluid flow through manifolds which has a major
Hence, it is governed by the unsteady Navier–Stokes effect on the engine performance. It is essential,
equations which are reduced to the Euler equations therefore, to use numerical methods that have the
by neglecting all the terms involving friction and ability to resolve the flow phenomena in such systems

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738 M Bordjane, D Chalet, M Abidat, and P Chessé

if successful simulations of engines are to be per- Euler equations for inviscid flow by neglecting all
formed [5]. the terms involving friction and thermal conduction
The geometry used as physical space was created in [13, 14]. The total energy model is set for the heat
the cylindrical coordinates system (r, , z). A slice of transfer in conjunction with an ideal gas assumption.
 ¼ 5 was selected between symmetry planes from The governing equations are integrated over each
the entire pipe. The ICEM mesh generation tool is control volume and for the transient term, the first-
used to generate hexahedral elements from single order backward Euler scheme is used. For the advec-
block, as shown in Fig. 3. In order to better resolve tion term, the upwind second-order high-resolution
the large flow parameter gradients, a refined mesh is scheme is used. It is both accurate and bounded since
used close to the pipe axis and the solid wall bound- it is only reduced to first order near discontinuities. It
ary, and so, particular care is given to mesh construc- is based on the following physical properties
tion parameters (scale factor, mesh law, mesh (entropy, monotonic, and total variations diminish-
element size). For each of the 16 configurations (by ing conditions). A convergence criterion of 106 is set
variation of the length (L) and the diameter (D) of the to reduce the iteration errors. Hence, the flow and the
pipe), the mesh size is selected ensuring a compro- energy equations iterate till residuals reach this order.
mise between CPU time and accuracy. The computa- The boundary conditions are described as follows:
tional domain and the mesh details are shown in Fig. the flow at the inlet is subsonic, the static tempera-
3 and Table 1, where L denotes the length and D the ture is 293 K, the signal of pressure imposed is in
diameter of the pipe. sinusoidal function form: P1(t) ¼ P10 þ [Link]
The transient simulation is performed for 0.2 s with (2.p.n.t), where: P10 ¼ 1 bar, dP1 ¼ 0.05 bar, and the
the same time interval (t) used in the 1D simulation frequencies n ¼ 10, 25, 50, 75, 100 Hz. The type of the
presented next. This time interval is derived through outlet boundary is an opening. This condition can be
the criterion of Courant et al. [15] (CFL ¼ Cmax.t/ specified with a relative pressure value (Pspec ¼ 1 bar);
x). For a CFL (n ¼ 0.9), its value is (0.000 01 s) and the the value is interpreted as relative total pressure for
number of iterations in each simulation is 20 000. inflow and relative static pressure for outflow. The
Here, the value of the mesh size (x) is determined pipe is defined as an adiabatic wall which allows for
by establishing criteria which defines the compro- no heat transfer across the wall boundary (qw ¼ 0).
mise between accuracy and computational speed. Also, the flow near the wall is set to be free slip so that
The fluid is considered to be air, as an ideal gas, and the shear stress is set to be zero ( ¼ 0); hence, the flow
the domain reference pressure is set to be 0 Pa. The is not retarded by wall friction effects and the velocity
initial conditions of the flow at time t ¼ 0 s are defined normal to the wall is also set to be zero (Vw ¼ 0). The
as u ¼ v ¼ w ¼ 0 m/s, Pi ¼ 1 bar, and Ti ¼ 293 K). symmetry plane boundary condition imposes con-
The laminar flow considered is governed by the straints which mirror the flow on either side of it;
unsteady Navier–Stokes equations reduced to the so, the scalar variable gradients normal to the bound-
ary and the normal velocity component at the sym-
metry plane boundary are set to be zero.

Solid wall Outlet

4 ONE-DIMENSIONAL MODEL
z
r
The pulsating nature of the gas flow in the intake and
θ exhaust systems creates significant effects which
Inlet 0 Symmetry plane

Table 1 Mesh details

L500D40 L300D40 L250D40 L150D40
Elements 75 551 45 451 37 926 22 876
Nodes 49 750 29 850 24 875 14 925
L500D30 L300D30 L250D30 L150D30
Elements 55 932 34 126 27 808 17 176
Nodes 37 250 22 350 18 625 11 175
L500D20 L300D20 L250D20 L150D20
Elements 36 958 22 801 18 458 11 476
Nodes 24 750 14 850 12 375 7425
L1000D30 L400D20 L400D40 L400D30
Elements 112 431 30 351 60 302 45 426
Nodes 74 500 19 800 39 800 29 800
Fig. 3 Physical domain and mesh generation

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 Inertial effects on fluid flow through manifolds of internal combustion engines 739

M+1
3. Energy equation
PIPE × × ×  
U2 U2   p
D
@ p @
 þ þ U   þ

M+2
M+3
L @t 2 1 @x 2 1
 
∂p
U2   p U dS
p+ dx ¼  þ   þ   qe
∂x 2 1 S dx
p
∂ρ ð15Þ
ρ τw ρ+ dx
∂x
U ∂U where qe represents the heat transfer rate per unit
U+ dx
S dx ∂x mass of the gas (J/kg) and can be set to represent
∂S convective heat transfer in the radial direction
S+ dx
∂x
through pipe walls.
Fig. 4 Control volume and mesh for unsteady 1D flow
in pipe
To compare different methods, we must make the
same assumptions and hypothesis for the model con-
sidered in each case. Hence, with ideal gas, non-vis-
require gas dynamics models for complete modelling
cous fluid, and adiabatic flow, the terms G and qe are
in addition to filling-and-emptying or ICMs. Gas
equal to zero. The conservation law form of the gov-
dynamic models have been used to study engine
erning equations can be used as a basis for numerical
gas exchange process. These models also use the
schemes that are capable of handling flows with dis-
mass, momentum, and energy conservation equa-
continuities, and which satisfy implicitly the
tions for the unsteady compressible flow in the
Rankine–Hugoniot conditions across shock waves
intake and exhaust systems of spark ignition and
[5]. The equations in the vector form are given by
diesel engines, both naturally aspirated and turbo-
Chalet et al. [18]
charged [16]. Many of the examples occurring in
unsteady flow can be considered to be essentially @W @F ðW Þ
þ ¼K ð16Þ
1D in nature. This is because the length-to-diameter @t @x
(L/D) ratios of the pipes are large enough for the flow where the vectors W, F, and K are represented by
to be fully developed (for the case of turbulent flow) 2 3 2 3
[5]. The flow in a pipe of an engine exhaust and/or    U2
6 7 6 2 7
intake system is treated also as 1D; this implies that W ¼ 4  U 5; F ðW Þ ¼ 4 p þ   U2 5
U 2 p U p
properties and flow variables obtained from the solu-  2 þ 1 U   2 þ 1
tion of the gas dynamic equations represent mean 2 3
values over the cross-section of the pipe [17]. If the   US  dS
dx
6 U 2
dS 7
flow of a compressible fluid was considered through K ¼ 4   S  dx    G 5
2 p
an infinitesimal section of pipe in which the area of    U2 þ 1  US  dS þ   qe
dx
cross-section varies as shown in Fig. 4, then the gov-
erning equations of this kind of flow can be given in In practice, the pipe length (L) is subdivided into
the conservation law form as follows. (N) equal meshes with a length of x, defined by
x ¼ L/N. Therefore, for stability in the integration
1. Continuity equation
process, the time step and mesh size must satisfy the
@ @ U dS CFL criteria defined by C ¼ (as þ WU W).t/x < 1,
þ ð  U Þ ¼    ð13Þ
@t @x S dx where C is the courant number and ‘as’ the sound
where U is the axial component of the velocity speed for an ideal gas. The second-order Harten Lax
vector and S the cross-sectional area of the pipe. Leer scheme (with the use of a total variation dimin-
2. Momentum equation ishing flux limiter algorithm) [18] is used to solve
these equations. Each pipe has two boundaries and
@ @   U 2 dS
ð  U Þ þ p þ   U 2 ¼    G ð14Þ their description depends on the adjacent element.
@t @x S dx
The principle consists of modelling the boundaries
where G represents the friction term given by by imaginary points. These are obtained in quasi-
f f U steady state conditions by a formulation of the follow-
G ¼ 2  U  jU j  ¼ 2  U2  
D D jU j ing equations: the continuity equation, the momen-
tum equation, and the energy equation [18]. The
and f represents the friction coefficient given by
same algorithm is applied to the pipe boundary con-
 
f ¼ w 1=2    U2 ditions as for the rest of the pipe and the boundaries
models are described by Chalet et al. [18].

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740 M Bordjane, D Chalet, M Abidat, and P Chessé

5 INERTIAL CAPACITIVE MODEL ANALYSIS For CFD analysis, the following frequencies are
used: n ¼ 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 Hz. However, for
To study the inertial effects on fluid flow in the intake the experimental validation (D0 ¼ 30 mm and
and exhaust manifolds of internal combustion L0 ¼ 1000 mm configuration), the following range of
engines, selected configurations are obtained by engine frequency: n ¼ 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5, 20, 22.5, and
changing two parameters L0 and D0 (geometrical 25 Hz, is used, since real engine frequency is in the
characteristics of the pipe). The parameters of the range 10–25 Hz.
flow (the pressure (p) and mass flowrate (Q) which Based on the CFD (ANSYS-CFX) analysis of the dif-
contain all the information required to determine ferent configurations (at the mentioned frequencies),
inertial effects of the fluid flow) through the 16 differ- and to tune the parameters for the new model, one
ent intake pipe configurations are studied using CFD has to fit the inertial element length (L), the diameter
analysis. The thermodynamic formulation of the pro- (D)IE or the capacity volume exit diameter (D)CE (Fig.
posed method is coded for the 16 configurations and 2), in such a way that the instantaneous pressure P(t)
is used to tune the parameters of the model. curves and the instantaneous mass flowrate Q(t)
The sixteen geometrical configurations studied curves obtained from the two method, superimpose.
using the proposed method and CFD analysis are pre- Results of the TPs versus frequency for the pro-
sented bellow: for each diameter D0 ¼ 20, 30, and posed method are presented in Figs 5(a), (b), and (c).
40 mm, the geometrical lengths selected are Presentation of the TPs follows the following forms
L0 ¼ 150, 250, 300, 400, and 500 mm. In addition, 
For inertial element: L=L0 ¼ f ðnÞ and ðD=D0 ÞIE ¼ f ðnÞ
the configuration which corresponds to the experi-
For capacitive element: ðD=D0 ÞCE ¼ f ðnÞ
mental case, D0 ¼ 30 and L0 ¼ 1000, is analysed.
ð17Þ

(a) 1,10 (b) 2,5

: L0 =500, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
1,05 2,4 : L0 =400, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
1,00 2,3 : L0 =300, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
: L0 =250, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
2,2
0,95 : L0 =150, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
2,1
(D/D0) Inertial element

: L0 =1000, D0 =[20, 30, 40]

0,90
2,0
0,85 1,9
0,80 1,8
0,75 1,7
L/L0

0,70 1,6
0,65 1,5
0,60 1,4
0,55 : L0 =500, D0 =[20, 30, 40] 1,3
: L0 =400, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
0,50 : L0 =300, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
1,2
0,45
: L0 =250, D0 =[20, 30, 40] 1,1
: L0 =150, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
1,0
0,40 : L0 =1000, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
0,9
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
B-Effect of pipe diameter (inertial diameter)
A-Effect of pipe length (inertial length)

(c) 1,05
1,00
0,95
0,90
(D/D0) Capacitive element

0,85
0,80
0,75
0,70
0,65
0,60
0,55 : L0 =500, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
: L0 =400, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
0,50 : L0 =300, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
: L0 =250, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
0,45
: L0 =150, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
0,40 : L0 =1000, D0 =[20, 30, 40]
0,35
0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency [Hz]
C-Effect of valve orifice (capacitive exit)

Fig. 5 Effects of geometrical inertial capacitive configuration characteristics: (a) pipe length (iner-
tial length); (b) pipe diameter (inertial diameter); and (c) valve orifice (capacitive exit)

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 Inertial effects on fluid flow through manifolds of internal combustion engines 741

As shown in Figs 5(a), (b), and (c), it can be seen that inertial element, the pressures difference decreases,
in the case of compact intake manifolds (L/ and thus the resistance of the gas to any change in its
D 4 [3.7577.5]), the effect of fluid inertia is low or state of motion (velocity vector) decreases. Increasing
negligible. It was mentioned in earlier studies that the engine frequencies (speed), implies quick variations
inertia of gases was not significant until (L/D  10.)[19]. of pressure and hence the inertia effects. In such cir-
Hence, for compact intake manifolds, unsteady flow cumstances, the system reacts without waiting for
has a negligible inertial influence. At constant diameter pseudo steady state. This allows taking into account
(D0) of the inertial element (runner of manifold), when the inertia effects of fluid flow. Also, if the pipe is
increasing geometric length (L0) of the inertial element, shortened, wave travel times are small compared
it can be seen that the differences between the pro- with the time of the overall process. By increasing
posed method (ICM) curves and CFD curves data the pipe section, the mass flowrate increase and the
(p(t) and Q(t)) increase, hence, (L/L0) decreases. This gas velocity decrease.
can be due to the progressive increase in volume flow As shown in Fig. 5(c), at constant frequency, when
inertial effect in the pipe. Using equation (4), the pres- increasing the geometrical length (L0), the TP (D/
sure difference through the gas flow volume due to D0)CE related to the pressure difference through the
inertial effect is given by equation (18) valve decreases. This TP is linearly proportional to the
  engine speed. Moreover, from the tuning procedure
L dq d LS q of the ICM and when changing the tuning ratio (D/
p ¼ ¼ ð18Þ
S dt dt D0)CE, the flowrate Q(t) is not sensitive for lower
From this equation, the constitutive relation of the ‘fluid engine speeds. However, it becomes sensitive at
effort store’ can be represented by:  ¼ LS q where  is higher engine speeds. On the other hand, the tuning
defined as the ‘fluid momentum’ and is related to the ratio (D/D0)CE greatly influences the capacity
pressure difference across the fluid plug by pressure.
From the tuning procedure, it is noted that for a
d
p ¼ given tube length L0 ¼ 150, 250, . . ., 500 mm and for
dt different diameters D0 ¼ 20, 30, and 40 mm, the same
Hence TPs are obtained at constant frequency. Hence, for a
given length and frequency, the different TPs are
SIE dqe ðt Þ d
pe ðt Þ  prec ðt Þ ¼ ¼ ð19Þ independent of the pipe diameter. Consequently,
L dt dt
the effects of geometrical length (L0) on the three
where  is a quantity related to the momentum and is types of TPs (L/L0), (D/D0)IE, and (D/D0)CE can be
used in order to simplify the model description. represented in Figs 6(a), (b), (c), and (d). From these
The material properties are characterized by the curves, we can deduce the relative TPs for every given
inertial coefficient (Lf), which is defined by: Lf ¼ (L/ pipe configuration. It is also noted that with the
SIE). By increasing the length of the inertial element, increase of engine speed, yet when reaching excita-
the inertance increase and its influence on fluid flow tion frequency, the ICM remains valid, even if the
increases with engine speed. For low engine speed, influence of fluid inertia effect considerably increases
the influence is not sensitive. However, for high (the difference between the CFD and ICM methods
engine speeds, the influence is higher. becomes bigger without tuning). The variation of the
As shown in Fig. 5(a), for a given frequency, it is two parameters of the inertial element (L and D or S)
noted that the TP (L/L0) decreases when increasing in the ICM, leads to changing the flowrate equation
the geometrical length. Moreover, L/L0 is linearly pro- (4) while, the gas volume remains constant.
portional to the frequency n. However, in the same Earliest investigations shows that the engine effi-
conditions, the TP (D/D0)IE of the inertial element ciency decreases slightly with increasing length of
increases with the geometrical length (L0). (D/D0)IE inlet pipes, the reason for this decrease is the decrease
is linearly proportional to engine speed (Fig. 5(b)). in the gas exchange (mep) [17].
The two parameters (L/L0) and (D/D0)IE are related Also, it was shown that the tuning of an engine is
to the pressure difference due to the effect of gas very much affected by the length of the primary pipes
volume inertia (equation (4)). (runners) in manifolds. From the curves of volumetric
From the fundamental equation of momentum efficiency versus engine speed, which exhibit two
conservation, the pressure differences due to inertia peaks, if the primary pipe is shortened, the second
effects are directly related to the momentum peak due to inertia effects moves to higher speeds
p ¼ d/dt,  ¼ (L/S).Q (t) or the geometrical char- and the magnitude of the tuning is reduced, but, if
acteristics of the pipe and the mass flowrate. Hence, it is lengthened, the inertia peak becomes bigger due
by decreasing the length or increasing the section of to the increased mass of air in the pipes and the

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742 M Bordjane, D Chalet, M Abidat, and P Chessé

(a) 1,20 (b) 1,08

1,15
1,10
1,05 1,04
1,00
0,95
0,90 1,00
0,85
0,80
0,75 0,96
L/L0

0,70

L/L0
0,65
0,60 0,92
0,55 Frequencies
0,50 : 10 Hz
0,45 0,88 : 25 Hz
0,40 : 10 Hz : 12.5 Hz
: 15 Hz
0,35 : 25 Hz
0,84 : 17.5 Hz
: 50 Hz
0,30 : 75 Hz : 20 Hz
0,25 : 100 Hz : 22.5 Hz
: 16.76 Hz
0,20 0,80
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
L0[mm] L0[mm]

(d) 1,05
(c) 2,5 F10
2,4 F25 1,00
F50
2,3 F75 0,95
F100
2,2 (D/D0) Capacitive element 0,90
2,1
(D/D0) Inertial element

0,85
2,0
0,80
1,9
1,8 0,75
1,7 0,70
1,6 0,65
1,5 0,60
1,4 0,55
1,3
0,50 F10
1,2 F25
1,1 0,45 F50
0,40 F75
1,0 F100
0,9 0,35
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
L0 L0

Fig. 6 Effect of geometrical inertial length on tuning ratios (a, b, c, d)

frequency of tuning is reduced. In fact, the two tuning agreement is obtained between the three models,
modes start to merge and result in a steady increase in particularly with the use of TPs determined by CFD
volumetric efficiency and torque, over a significant analysis. As a consequence, the ICM can be used in an
speed range. The disadvantage of long primary internal combustion engine code. With this method,
pipes is that the volumetric efficiency drops off rap- the simulation time will be reduced.
idly at higher speeds, which would limit the perfor- For the same conditions and numerical methods,
mance of petrol engine [5]. Also, it was shown that it is comparison between instantaneous variables, mass
possible to lower the natural frequency of a manifold flowrate, and pressure at the exit of the inertial capac-
[20] by increasing the effective length of primary pipe. itive configuration (Fig. 2), are presented in Fig. 8; it is
To analyse the possibilities of the model proposed, shown that in the range of real engine frequencies,
ICM, two other numerical methods are used: the 1D the ICM predicts accurately the behaviour of the
model and the 3D model of CFD analysis (ANSYS- real flow in manifolds of internal combustion
CFX). The range of frequency or engine speed engines.
chosen correspond to that encountered for real
engines that is the range of (10725) Hz or 6 EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION
(120073000) r/min is chosen. Comparison between
the mean exit pressure of inertial capacitive configu- To study the influence of the intake manifold charac-
ration (Fig. 2), for the three methods with and without teristics on engine mass flowrate (hence its perfor-
the use of the TPs (L/L0 ¼ 1, 0.98, 0.965, 0.95, 0.935, mance) and validate the proposed ICM, a test rig is
0.92, and 0.90), corresponding to the frequencies (10, used. The experimental facility, installed at the Ecole
12.5, 15, 16.76, 20, 22.5, and 25 Hz), is represented in Centrale de Nantes, is shown in Fig. 9. The tested
Fig. 7. The selected TP (L/L0) is more sensitive to iner- intake manifold configuration is shown in the same
tial effects compared to the two other TPs. Good figure (see points 1–6). The intake pipe goes to a

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 Inertial effects on fluid flow through manifolds of internal combustion engines 743

(a) 100100 (b) 100100

: 3D Model ([Link]) : 3D Model ([Link])
: 1D Model : 1D Model
: Inertial Capacitive Model (without tuninig parameter) : Inertial Capacitive Model (with tuninig parameter)
100000 100000

99900 99900
P[Pa]

99800 99800

P[Pa]
99700 99700

99600 99600

99500 99500

5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 7 Comparison between mean pressures for three numerical models (with and without TPs)

single-cylinder engine driven by an electric motor. A From this figure, it can be seen that there is a good
200 l tank installed at engine exit helps to obtain uni- agreement between the measured and calculated
form flow, to precisely measure the average mass values with the proposed model (ICM). The determi-
flowrate, which is done using SIERRA flow meter, nation of the ICM parameters is made with straight
model 780S with reading accuracy of 1 per cent tube. However, the pipe system of the experimental
and full-scale repeatability of 0.2 per cent. Cylinder set-up is composed of elements with variable section.
instantaneous pressure is measured using KISTLER As a consequence, vortex zones can appear and some
611BFD17 pressure transducer by the means of an differences between the numerical and the experi-
instrumented spark plug. mental results. Furthermore, filling of engine
Engine rotational speed (controlled by an electric depends on several factors that have been neglected
speed variator) together with data acquisition are (heat exchange in the cylinder ant adaptation parts of
controlled from a computer (because the test is the air mass flow meter are not taken into account).
made without combustion). Table 2 clarifies the dif- These are probably the reasons of the differences
ferent inlet configuration sections and test rig between measured and calculated values with ICM.
components.
One configuration is experimentally tested for this 7 CONCLUSION
study (L0 ¼ 1000 mm and D0 ¼ 30 mm) to validate the
model proposed (ICM ). From Fig. 2, the exit section To study the flow through the intake and exhaust sys-
of the capacitive element SCE corresponds to that of tems, it is clear that the very detailed flow descrip-
the effective valve’s section. This configuration is pre- tions associated with wave action and internal flow
sented in Fig. 9. The admission line is composed from approaches are not required. Hence, a simpler
the intake elements (1–6), which are not all straight, approach with effectiveness and complete modelling
so, the real length of centre-line is equivalent to and which, without prohibitive reduction in accuracy
L0 & 1.12 475 m. Valve lift is measured versus crank- will nevertheless yield valid performance predictions
shaft rotational angle with estimated effective valve’s (including cyclically varying phenomena such as
section. Average mass flowrate at tank exit together exhaust or inlet manifold pressure), is likely to
with instantaneous cylinder pressure are measured at prove beneficial both in terms of initial programming
the following different engine rotational speeds: 1800, effort, but even more so, in greatly reducing comput-
2000, 2400, 2700, and 3000 r/min. Results obtained ing times and costs. The filling and emptying model
are compared to those calculated with ICM and are may be an attractive technique because of its simplic-
estimated with formula (20), where the inertial effects ity, but for the manifolds of internal combustion
and pressure losses around the valve are ignored). engines, the important effect of fluid flow inertia
These results are presented in Table 3 and Fig. 10. related to the length of runners was ignored. For the
compact intake manifolds (in this study: L/D 4 7.5),
1 1
q ¼   Disp  N   ð20Þ the effect of fluid inertia is low or negligible. The three
60 2 TPs (parameters of ICM), L/L0, (D/D0)IE, (D/D0)CE),
where q is the mass flowrate in kg/s, Disp the displa- are linearly proportional to frequencies (n) or
cement of engine cylinder, N the rotational speed and engine speed (N), but, at constant frequency, it is
 the gas density. noted that the TP (L/L0) decreases with increasing

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744 M Bordjane, D Chalet, M Abidat, and P Chessé

Fig. 8 Comparison between instantaneous pressures and mass flowrates for 0D thermodynamic
(ICM), 1D, and 3D CFD (ANSYS-CFX) models

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 Inertial effects on fluid flow through manifolds of internal combustion engines 745

the geometrical length (L0) of the inertial element. even when reaching excitation frequency, the ICM
However, in the same conditions, the TP (D/D0)IE of remains valid, even if the influence of fluid inertia
the inertial element increases and the TP (D/D0)CE effect considerably increase.
related to the pressure difference through the valve The new model is then used in order to study the
decreases with increasing the geometrical length (L0). emptying and filling of a single cylinder engine with-
The two parameters (L/L0) and (D/D0)IE are related to out combustion. A correct agreement is obtained
the pressure difference due to the effect of gas volume between the numerical and experimental results. As
inertia. By increasing the length of the inertial ele- a consequence, this kind of model can be used with-
ment, the inertance increase and its influence on out 1D approach and the computational times are
fluid flow increases with engine speed. For low reduced. This point is very important for internal
engine speeds, the influence is not sensitive. Also, it combustion engine simulation code, especially in
was observed that for a given length and frequency, order to design the inlet and exhaust manifolds.
the different TPs are independent of the diameter of
the pipe (the same TPs are determined for different
diameters of pipes for a given length and frequency).
It is also noted, that with the increase of engine speed,
20
:Mesured values
:Inertial capacitive method with tuning parameters
:Estimated values (Formula 20)
18

Mass flow rate [kg/h]

16
2 3 4

5 14
6
1 12
M PC

10
D
8
7
8 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200
9 Engine speed [rpm]

Fig. 9 Test facility Fig. 10 Comparison between measured and calcu-

lated mass flowrate

Table 2 Test bench characteristics

Signification Dimensions
1 Admission tube L1 ¼ 1000 mm, D1 ¼ 30 mm
2 Convergent L2 ¼ 70 mm, D21 ¼ 30 mm, D22 ¼ 19 mm
3 Divergent L3 ¼ 7 mm, D31 ¼ 19 mm, D32 ¼ 27.5 mm
4 Inlet port L4 ¼ 15.75 mm, D4 ¼ 27.5 mm
5 Bend L5 ¼ 24 mm, D51 ¼ 27.7 mm, D52 ¼ 23.2 mm
6 Inlet pipe L6 ¼ 8 mm, D6 ¼ 23.2 mm
7 Driven one cylinder engine Four stroke, 160 cm3, 3.7 kW at 3600 r/min
8 Tank volume 200 L, helps to have a uniform flow in order to measure exit flowrate
9 Electronic speed controller to control engine rotational speed
M Electric motor to regulate one stroke engine rotational velocity
D Flow meter
PC Computer for data acquisition

Table 3 Experimental and calculated values with ICM versus engine speeds
Engine speed Frequency Measured Estimated values Calculated values
(r/min) (Hz) TPs (L/L0) values (kg/h) (formula 20) (kg/h) by ICM (kg/h)
1798 14.983 0.95 9.444 11.133 216 9403
2011 16.758 0.94 10.385 12.452 112 10 938
2413 20.108 0.92 13.4364 14.941 296 1 378 329
2703 22.525 0.90 15.1116 16.736 976 1 596 026
3005 25.041 0.88 17.923 18.606 96 18 312

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746 M Bordjane, D Chalet, M Abidat, and P Chessé

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 15 Courant, R., Friedrichs, K. O., and Lewy, H. Uber die

Partiellen Differenzengleichungen der mathema-
This study has been realized with the collaboration tischen physic. Math. Ann., 1928, 100, 32–74. A trans-
between the Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics of Ecole lation of this paper is given as: On the partial
difference equations of mathematical physics. IBM
Centrale de Nantes (France) and the ‘Laboratoire de
J. Res. Dev. 1967, 11, 215–234.
Mécanique Appliquée-LMA’ of USTO-MB University 16 Heywood, J. B. Internal combustion engine funda-
(Algeria). The authors thank laboratory’s members mentals, 1988 (McGraw-Hill, London).
for their permission to publish this study. 17 Ugur, K. Study on the design of inlet and exhaust
system of a stationary internal combustion engine.
ß Authors 2011
Energy Convers. Manage., 2005, 46, 2258–2287
(Elsevier).
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Mathematische Werke Second edition, 1892, h static enthalpy
(Teubner, Leipzig). H total enthalpy
7 Benson, R. S., Horlock, J. H., and Winterbone, D. E. L length of pipe
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tation à deux étages d’un moteur Diesel à bas taux de
SIE cross-sectional area of the inertial
compression appelé BTC, Conservatoire des Arts et element
des Métiers, 1978. SCE cross-sectional area of the capacitive
11 Keenan, J. H. and Kayes, J. Gas tables, 1948 (John element
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12 Ramos, J. I. Internal combustion engine modelling, T temperature
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13 John, D. and Anderson, J. R. Computational fluid ~
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1976 (John Wiley &Sons, New York).  density

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 Inertial effects on fluid flow through manifolds of internal combustion engines 747

g specific heat ratio ¼Cp/Cv rec receiver

spec specification
Vector identities ref reference
r vector operator IE inertial element
 dyadic operator denotes tensor product CE capacitive element
of two vectors

Subscripts
i initial value
e inlet variables
s outlet variables
0 geometrical characteristics of the pipe

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