Atoms and molecules

Laws of Chemical Combination

Chemical Reactions

 In a chemical reaction, two or more molecules interact to produce new com-

pounds; they are called reactants, whereas the newly formed compounds are
called products.
 In a chemical reaction, a chemical change must occur, which is generally ob-
served with physical changes like precipitation, heat production, colour
change, etc.

Law of Conservation of Mass

 According to the law of conservation of mass, matter can neither be created

nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. It remains conserved.
 The mass of reactants will be equal to the mass of products.

Law of Constant Proportions

 A pure chemical compound containing the same elements combined together

in a fixed proportion by mass is given by the law of definite proportions.
 For e.g., If we take water from a river or from an ocean, both have oxygen and
hydrogen in the same proportion.
The elements are present in chemical compounds in a predetermined
mass ratio. The “Law of Constant Proportions” is this. This “Law of Constant
Proportions” is also known as “Proust’s law” or the “law of defined propor-
tions.” For instance, the oxygen and hydrogen content in pure water is al-
ways 1:8.
Atoms
An atom is the defining structure of an element, which cannot be broken by
any chemical means.
The atomic symbol has three parts:-

 The symbol X: the usual element symbol

 The atomic number A: equal to the number of protons
 The mass number Z: equal to the total number of protons and neutrons in an
element.

Atomic Radius
The distance between an atom’s nucleus and outer electron shell. The
atomic radius is calculated by measuring the distance between the nuclei
of two identical atoms bonded together. Half this distance is the atomic ra-
dius.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

According to Dalton’s Atomic Theory, atoms, which are indestructible and
indivisible building blocks, make up all substances. Unlike other elements,
which have atoms of different sizes and weights, an element’s atoms have
all the same size and mass.

Dalton proposed that the concept of atoms could be used to explain the
laws of conservation of mass and definite proportions. He proposed that
atoms, which he described as “solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, moving
particle(s)”, are the smallest, indivisible units of matter.

1. The matter is made up of indivisible particles known as atoms.

2. The properties of all the atoms of a given element are the same, including
mass. This can also be stated as – all the atoms of an element have identical
mass and chemical properties; atoms of different elements have different
masses and chemical properties.
3. Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds.
4. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed. The formation of new products
(compounds) results from the rearrangement of existing atoms (reactants) in
a chemical reaction.
5. The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
To know more about the Laws of Chemical Combination, visit here.

Atomic Mass

Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit

 Atomic mass is the total of the masses of the electrons, neutrons, and protons
in an atom, or in a group of atoms, the average mass.
 The mass of an atomic particle is called the atomic mass.
 This is commonly expressed as per the international agreement in terms of a
unified atomic mass unit (AMU).
 It can be best defined as 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom in its ground
state.
To know more about Atomic Mass, visit here.

Molecular mass
Molecular mass of an element is defined as the sum of the masses of the
elements present in the molecule.

 Molecular mass is obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of an element by

the number of atoms in the molecule and then adding the masses of all the el-
ements in the molecule.

To know more about Molecular mass, visit here.

Molecule
The smallest identifiable unit into which a pure substance may be divided
while retaining its composition and chemical properties is a molecule,
which is a collection of two or more atoms.

Molecules of Elements
A molecule is a collection of two or more chemically bound atoms, whether
they are from the same element or another.

For example, when two hydrogen (H2) atoms and one oxygen (O2) atom in-
teract, one water molecule is created.

Molecules of Compounds
Salts and molecular compounds are the two categories into which com-
pounds can be divided. Covalent bonds hold the atoms together in molec-
ular molecules. Ionic bonds hold it together in salts. Every compound is
composed of one of these two types of bonds.

Actually, a compound is a kind of molecule. The atoms that join together

must be distinct from one another for the substance to qualify as a com-
pound. O2, for instance, is a molecule, not a compound, due to its atomic
connection with another oxygen atom. NaCl, however, is a compound since
it is made up of two distinct atoms that are chemically bound together.

Mole Concept

Mole Concept & Avogadro Number

 In a substance, the amount of entities present. For e.g. atoms, molecules, and
ions are defined as a mole. A mole of any substance is 6.022×1023 molecules.
 The Mole concept is one of the most convenient ways of expressing the
amount of reactants and products in the reaction.

The value of Avogadro’s number is approximately 6.022×1023. The definition

of Avogadro’s number is that it tells us the number of particles in 1 mole (or
mol) of a substance. These particles could be electrons or molecules, or
atoms.
To know more about Mole Concept, visit here.

Molar Mass

Molar Mass
A substance is something which has mass and occupies space. The molar
mass/molecular weight is actually the sum of the total mass in grams of
the atoms present to make up a molecule per mole. The unit of molar
mass is grams/mole.
To know more about Molar Mass, visit here.

Atomic Valency

Molecules and Atomicity

A molecule is defined as the smallest unit of a compound that contains the
chemical properties of the compound.

 The atomicity of an element is the number of atoms in one molecule of the el-
ement.
 For e.g., Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine, iodine, and bromine all have two
atoms in each of their molecules. So, the atomicity of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxy-
gen, chlorine, iodine, and bromine is two each.

Structure of an Atom

 Atom is made of three particles; electron, proton and neutron.

 The centre of the atom is called the nucleus. The nucleus of an atom contains
the whole mass of an atom.
 Electrons in an atom are arranged in shells/orbitals.
Valency
Valence electrons are those electrons which are present in the outermost
orbit of the atom.

 The capacity of an atom to lose, gain or share valence electrons in order to

complete its octet determines the valency of the atom.
To know more about Valency, visit here.

Writing Chemical Formulae

Compounds

 When two or more elements chemically combine in a fixed ratio by mass, the
obtained product is known as a compound.
 Compounds are substances consisting of two or more different types of ele-
ments in a fixed ratio of its atoms.
Ions

 An ion is defined as an atom or molecule which has gained or lost one or more
of its valence electrons, giving it a net positive or negative charge.
 A negatively charged particle is called an anion, and a positively charged par-
ticle is called a cation.

Ionic Compounds: Chemical Formula

Each constituent element in a chemical formula is identified by its chemi-
cal symbol, along with the relative number of atoms that make up each el-
ement. These ratios are used in empirical equations to start with a key ele-
ment and then assign atom counts for the remaining elements in the
compound in relation to the key element.

 Ionic compounds are chemical compounds in which ions are held together by
specialised bonds called ionic bonds.
 An Ionic compound always contains an equal amount of positive and negative
charge.
 For example: In calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by oppositely
charged calcium and chloride ions.
The calcium atom loses 2 electrons and attains the electronic configuration of
the nearest noble gas (Ar). By doing so, it gains a net charge of +2.

The two chlorine atoms take one electron each, thus gaining a charge of -1
 (each) and attain the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas (Ar).

Ncert question answer

Exercise-3.1 Page: 32
1. In a reaction, 5.3g of sodium carbonate reacted with 6 g of acetic acid.
The products were 2.2 g of carbon dioxide, 0.9 g of water and 8.2 g of so-
dium acetate. Show that these observations are in agreement with the
law of conservation of mass.

Sodium carbonate + acetic acid → Sodium acetate + carbon dioxide

+ water

Solution:

Sodium carbonate + acetic acid → Sodium acetate + carbon dioxide

+ water

5.3g 6g 8.2g 2.2g 0.9g

As per the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of reactants must
be equal to the total mass of

products.

As per the above reaction, L.H.S. = R.H.S. i.e., 5.3g + 6g = 2.2g + 0.9 g + 8.2 g
= 11.3 g

Hence, the observations are in agreement with the law of conservation of

mass.
2. Hydrogen and oxygen combine in a ratio of 1:8 by mass to form water.
What mass of oxygen gas would be required to react completely with 3 g
of hydrogen gas?

Solution:

We know hydrogen and water mix in a ratio 1: 8.

For every 1g of hydrogen, it is 8g of oxygen.

Therefore, for 3g of hydrogen, the quantity of oxygen = 3 x 8 = 24g

Hence, 24g of oxygen would be required for the complete reaction with 3g
of hydrogen gas.

3. Which postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory is the result of the law of

conservation of mass?

Solution:

The relative number and types of atoms are constant in a given composi-
tion, says Dalton’s atomic theory, which is based on the rule of conserva-
tion of mass.

“Atoms cannot be created nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction.”

4. Which postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory can explain the law of defi-
nite proportions?

Solution:

The postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory that can explain the law of definite
proportions is that the

relative number and kinds of atoms are equal in given compounds.

Exercise-3.2 Page: 35
1. Define the atomic mass unit.

Solution:

An atomic mass unit is a unit of mass used to express the weights of atoms
and molecules where one
atomic mass is equal to 1/12th the mass of one carbon-12 atom.

2. Why is it not possible to see an atom with the naked eyes?

Solution:

Firstly, atoms are minuscule in nature, measured in nanometers. Secondly,

except for atoms of noble

gases, they do not exist independently. Hence, an atom cannot be visible

to the naked eyes.

Exercise-3.3-3.4 Page: 39
1. Write down the formulae of

(i) sodium oxide

(ii) aluminium chloride

(iii) sodium sulphide

(iv) magnesium hydroxide

Solution:

The following are the formulae:

(i) sodium oxide – Na2O

(ii) aluminium chloride – AlCl3

(iii) sodium sulphide – Na2S

(iv) magnesium hydroxide – Mg (OH)2

2. Write down the names of compounds represented by the following for-

mulae:

(i) Al2(SO4)3

(ii) CaCl2

(iii) K2SO4
(iv) KNO3

(v) CaCO3.

Solution:

Listed below are the names of the compounds for each of the following
formulae:

(i) Al2(SO4)3 – Aluminium sulphate

(ii) CaCl2 – Calcium chloride

(iii) K2SO4 – Potassium sulphate

(iv) KNO3 – Potassium nitrate

(v) CaCO3 – Calcium carbonate

3. What is meant by the term chemical formula?

Solution:

Chemical formulas are used to describe the different types of atoms and
their numbers in a compound or element. Each element’s atoms are sym-
bolised by one or two letters. A collection of chemical symbols that depicts
the elements that make up a compound and their quantities.

For example, the chemical formula of hydrochloric acid is HCl.

4. How many atoms are present in a

(i) H2S molecule and

(ii) PO43- ion?

Solution:

The number of atoms present is as follows:

(i) H2S molecule has 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of sulphur hence 3
atoms in total.

(ii) PO43- ion has 1 atom of phosphorus and 4 atoms of oxygen hence 5 at-
oms in total.
Exercise-3.5.1-3.5.2 Page: 40
1. Calculate the molecular masses of H2 , O2 , Cl2, CO2, CH4, C2H6, C2H4, NH3,
CH3OH.

Solution:

The following are the molecular masses:

The molecular mass of H2 – 2 x atoms atomic mass of H = 2 x 1u = 2u

The molecular mass of O2 – 2 x atoms atomic mass of O = 2 x 16u = 32u

The molecular mass of Cl2 – 2 x atoms atomic mass of Cl = 2 x 35.5u = 71u

The molecular mass of CO2 – atomic mass of C + 2 x atomic mass of O = 12

+ ( 2×16)u = 44u

The molecular mass of CH4 – atomic mass of C + 4 x atomic mass of H = 12

+ ( 4 x 1)u = 16u

The molecular mass of C2H6– 2 x atomic mass of C + 6 x atomic mass of H

= (2 x 12) +

(6 x 1)u=24+6=30u

The molecular mass of C2H4– 2 x atomic mass of C + 4 x atomic mass of H

= (2x 12) +

(4 x 1)u=24+4=28u

The molecular mass of NH3– atomic mass of N + 3 x atomic mass of H = (14

+3 x 1)u= 17u

The molecular mass of CH3OH – atomic mass of C + 3x atomic mass of H +

atomic mass of O + atomic mass of H = (12 + 3×1+16+1)u=(12+3+17)u = 32u

2. Calculate the formula unit masses of ZnO, Na2O, K2CO3, given atomic
masses of Zn = 65u,

Na = 23 u, K=39u, C = 12u, and O=16u.

Solution:
Given:

The atomic mass of Zn = 65u

The atomic mass of Na = 23u

The atomic mass of K = 39u

The atomic mass of C = 12u

The atomic mass of O = 16u

The formula unit mass of ZnO= Atomic mass of Zn + Atomic mass of O =

65u + 16u = 81u

The formula unit mass of Na2O = 2 x Atomic mass of Na + Atomic mass of O

= (2 x 23)u + 16u = 46u + 16u = 62u

The formula unit mass of K2CO3 = 2 x Atomic mass of K + Atomic mass of C

+ 3 x Atomic mass of O = (2 x 39)u + 12u + (3 x 16)u = 78u + 12u + 48u = 138u

Exercise-3.5.3 Page: 42
1. If one mole of carbon atoms weighs 12grams, what is the mass (in
grams) of 1 atom of carbon?

Solution:

Given: 1 mole of carbon weighs 12g

1 mole of carbon atoms = 6.022 x 1023

The molecular mass of carbon atoms = 12g = an atom of carbon mass

Hence, mass of 1 carbon atom = 12 / 6.022 x 1023 = 1.99 x 10-23g

2. Which has more number of atoms, 100 grams of sodium or 100 grams
of iron (given the atomic mass of Na = 23u, Fe = 56 u)?

Solution:

(a) In 100 grams of Na:

m = 100g, Molar mass of Na atom = 23g, N0 = 6.022 x 1023, N = ?

N = (Given mass x N0)/Molar mass

N = (100 x 6.022 x 1023)/ 23

N = 26.18 x 1023 atoms

(b) In 100 grams of Fe:

m = 100 g, Molar mass of Fe atom = 56 g, N0 = 6.022 x 1023, N = ?

N = (Given mass x N0)/ Molar mass

N = (100 x 6.022 x 1023)/ 56

N = 10.75 x 1023 atoms

Therefore, the number of atoms is more in 100 g of Na than in 100 g of Fe.

Exercise Page: 43
1. A 0.24g sample of a compound of oxygen and boron was found by
analysis to contain 0.096g of boron and 0.144g of oxygen. Calculate the
percentage composition of the compound by weight.

Solution:

Given: Mass of the sample compound = 0.24g, mass of boron = 0.096g,

mass of oxygen = 0.144g

To calculate the percentage composition of the compound,

Percentage of boron = mass of boron / mass of the compound x 100

= 0.096g / 0.24g x 100 = 40%

Percentage of oxygen = 100 – percentage of boron

= 100 – 40 = 60%

2. When 3.0g of carbon is burnt in 8.00 g of oxygen, 11.00 g of carbon diox-

ide is produced. What mass of carbon dioxide will be formed when 3.00g
of carbon is burnt in 50.00 g of oxygen? Which law of chemical combina-
tion will govern your answer?
Solution:

When 3.0 g of carbon is burnt in 8.00 g of oxygen, 11.00 g of carbon dioxide

is produced.

Given that

3.0 g of carbon combines with 8.0 g of oxygen to give 11.0 of carbon dioxide.

Find out

We need to find out the mass of carbon dioxide that will be formed when
3.00 g of carbon is burnt in 50.00 g of oxygen.

Solution

First, let us write the reaction taking place here.

C + O2 → CO2

As per the given condition, when 3.0 g of carbon is burnt in 8.00 g of oxy-
gen, 11.00 g of carbon dioxide is produced.

3g + 8g →11 g ( from the above reaction)

The total mass of reactants = mass of carbon + mass of oxygen

=3g+8g

=11g

The total mass of reactants = Total mass of products

Therefore, the law of conservation of mass is proved.

Then, it also depicts that carbon dioxide contains carbon and oxygen in a
fixed ratio by mass, which is 3:8.

Thus, it further proves the law of constant proportions.

3 g of carbon must also combine with 8 g of oxygen only.

This means that (50−8)=42g of oxygen will remain unreacted.

The remaining 42 g of oxygen will be left un-reactive. In this case, too, only
11 g of carbon dioxide will be formed

The above answer is governed by the law of constant proportions.

3. What are polyatomic ions? Give examples.

Solution:

Polyatomic ions are ions that contain more than one atom, but they be-
have as a single unit.

Example: CO32-, H2PO4–

4. Write the chemical formula of the following.

(a) Magnesium chloride

(b) Calcium oxide

(c) Copper nitrate

(d) Aluminium chloride

(e) Calcium carbonate

Solution:

The following are the chemical formula of the above-mentioned list:

(a) Magnesium chloride – MgCl2

(b) Calcium oxide – CaO

(c) Copper nitrate – Cu(NO3)2

(d) Aluminium chloride – AlCl3

(e) Calcium carbonate – CaCO3

5. Give the names of the elements present in the following compounds.

(a) Quick lime

(b) Hydrogen bromide

(c) Baking powder

(d) Potassium sulphate

Solution:

The following are the names of the elements present in the following com-
pounds:

(a) Quick lime – Calcium and oxygen (CaO)

(b) Hydrogen bromide – Hydrogen and bromine (HBr)

(c) Baking powder – Sodium, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (NaHCO3)

(d) Potassium sulphate – Sulphur, Oxygen, Potassium (K2SO4)

6. Calculate the molar mass of the following substances.

(a) Ethyne, C2H2

(b) Sulphur molecule, S8

(c) Phosphorus molecule, P4 (Atomic mass of phosphorus =31)

(d) Hydrochloric acid, HCl

(e) Nitric acid, HNO3

Solution:

Listed below is the molar mass of the following substances:

(a) Molar mass of Ethyne C2H2= 2 x Mass of C+2 x Mass of H =

(2×12)+(2×1)=24+2=26g

(b) Molar mass of Sulphur molecule S8 = 8 x Mass of S = 8 x 32 = 256g

(c) Molar mass of Phosphorus molecule, P4 = 4 x Mass of P = 4 x 31 = 124g

(d) Molar mass of Hydrochloric acid, HCl = Mass of H+ Mass of Cl = 1+35.5 =

36.5g

(e) Molar mass of Nitric acid, HNO3 =Mass of H+ Mass of Nitrogen + 3 x Mass
of O = 1 + 14+
3×16 = 63g

7. What is the mass of

(a) 1 mole of nitrogen atoms?

(b) 4 moles of aluminium atoms (Atomic mass of aluminium =27)?

(c) 10 moles of sodium sulphite (Na2SO3)?

Solution:

The mass of the above-mentioned list is as follows:

(a) Atomic mass of nitrogen atoms = 14u

Mass of 1 mole of nitrogen atoms = Atomic mass of nitrogen atoms

Therefore, the mass of 1 mole of nitrogen atom is 14g.

(b) Atomic mass of aluminium =27u

Mass of 1 mole of aluminium atoms = 27g

1 mole of aluminium atoms = 27g, 4 moles of aluminium atoms = 4 x 27 =

108g

(c) Mass of 1 mole of sodium sulphite Na2SO3 = Molecular mass of sodium

sulphite = 2 x Mass of Na + Mass of S + 3 x Mass of O = (2 x 23) + 32 +(3x 16)
= 46+32+48 = 126g

Therefore, mass of 10 moles of Na2SO3 = 10 x 126 = 1260g

8. Convert into a mole.

(a) 12g of oxygen gas

(b) 20g of water

(c) 22g of carbon dioxide

Solution:

Conversion of the above-mentioned molecules into moles is as follows:

(a) Given: Mass of oxygen gas=12g

Molar mass of oxygen gas = 2 Mass of Oxygen = 2 x 16 = 32g

Number of moles = Mass given / molar mass of oxygen gas = 12/32

= 0.375 moles

(b) Given: Mass of water = 20g

Molar mass of water = 2 x Mass of Hydrogen + Mass of Oxygen = 2 x 1 + 16 =

18g

Number of moles = Mass given / molar mass of water

= 20/18 = 1.11 moles

(c) Given: Mass of carbon dioxide = 22g

Molar mass of carbon dioxide = Mass of C + 2 x Mass of Oxygen = 12 + 2x 16

= 12+32=44g

Number of moles = Mass given/ molar mass of carbon dioxide = 22/44 =

0.5 moles

9. What is the mass of:

(a) 0.2 mole of oxygen atoms?

(b) 0.5 mole of water molecules?

Solution:

The mass is as follows:

(a) Mass of 1 mole of oxygen atoms = 16u; hence, it weighs 16g.

Mass of 0.2 moles of oxygen atoms = 0.2 x 16 = 3.2g

(b) Mass of 1 mole of water molecules = 18u; hence, it weighs 18g.

Mass of 0.5 moles of water molecules = 0.5 x 18 = 9g

10. Calculate the number of molecules of sulphur (S8) present in 16g of

solid sulphur.
Solution:

To calculate the molecular mass of sulphur,

Molecular mass of Sulphur (S8) = 8xMass of Sulphur = 8×32 = 256g

Mass given = 16g

Number of moles = mass given/ molar mass of sulphur

= 16/256 = 0.0625 moles

To calculate the number of molecules of sulphur in 16g of solid sulphur,

Number of molecules = Number of moles x Avogadro number

= 0.0625 x 6.022 x 10²³ molecules

= 3.763 x 1022 molecules

11. Calculate the number of aluminium ions present in 0.051g of alumin-

ium oxide.

(Hint: The mass of an ion is the same as that of an atom of the same ele-
ment. Atomic mass of Al = 27u)

Solution:

To calculate the number of aluminium ions in 0.051g of aluminium oxide,

1 mole of aluminium oxide = 6.022 x 1023 molecules of aluminium oxide

1 mole of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) = 2 x Mass of aluminium + 3 x Mass of ox-

ygen

= (2x 27) + (3 x16) = 54 +48 = 102g

1 mole of aluminium oxide = 102g = 6.022 x 1023 molecules of aluminium ox-

ide

Therefore, 0.051g of aluminium oxide has = 6.022 x 1023 / 102 x 0.051

= 3.011 x 1020 molecules of aluminium oxide

One molecule of aluminium oxide has 2 aluminium ions; hence, the num-
ber of aluminium ions present in 0.051g of aluminium oxide = 2 x 3.011x
1020 molecules of aluminium oxide.

= 6.022 x 1020