CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN ETHICS © LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of the chapter, you are expected to: * Create your own definition of a “good life” « Define what ethics Is Articulate the nature of ethics as philosophy and science * Identify the different approaches to the study of ethics * Elaborate freedom as the foundation of morality * Appreciate the significance ethics as an academic endeavor 4 INPUT THE GOOD LIFE ETHICS is all about defining the ways to achieve and live a “good life”. In the Ancient Times For the primitive people, “good life” was never an issue. They lived in a utopic world. When we say “utopia”, we mean a “perfect place that has been designed so there are no problems.” There was no Individualism; no Personal Politics; no Selfishness. They were living in harmony with nature. There was an experience of universality, though the concept did not exist. They have common beliefs; common worldview; common practices; common way of life. There were no issues on truth, goodness, and beauty. Civilization Period When civilization sprang, people began to move beyond the confines of their communities. They travelled across borders for trade, adventure, conquest, and evangelization. They became scattered. They discovered that there is a bigger world beyond their small communal spaces. They found out that there are other communities that exist outside their borders. DSSP 2020-2021 | NOT FOR SALE/UNAUTHORIZED REPRTrade, which is done through barter, was not only on material goods but also on intellectual goods (though priceless). The exchange of intellectual goods resulted to comparison of one’s customs, beliefs, traditions, and many others. This prompted the idea that "what for me is beautiful may not be beautiful anymor hen compa with others” or “what for me is good and true may not be me case thers”. People began to philosophize and think of the reason why there were lives more beautiful than that of others. People began to compare their own life with others up to the extent of discrimination. @ Have you experienced being discriminated by someone because your beliefs, customs, and practices aren’t the same? IMPLICATIONS OF CIVILIZATION a lsh ites Civilization has led man to think in a spatiotemporal dimension (time and space). The people’s concept of time led them to interpret nothing into something. People began to fear a non-existing entity. Inasmuch as the human mind is linear, there is always an Issue on the “connected to”. Human beings will always look for the cause and effect in all their actions. They will always seek for the result in all their plans and activities. Human beings now see the connection between his present actions and the consequences thereof. Goodness and beauty are considered always to be connected with their daily activities - thus becomes causal and material This means that your present behavior will define your character in the future; your eating habits today will surely have impact on your future appearance. It is at this point that philosophy began to exist and started to flourish. There is now a transition: from asking “What was the cause of the existence of all things? Where did the world come from?” to “What makes a man a human person?” Human beings now seek to understand the meaning of life and the importance of good things. DSSP 2020-2021! N REPRODUCTIONWe now ask several existential questions such as: + WHAT SORT OF THING AM I? + WHERE DO I COME FROM? cl + TO WHERE SHALL I BE GOING? + WHY AM LIN THIS WORLD? + WHAT AM I LIVING FOR? + WHAT IS MY FUTURE AND MY DESTINY? + WHAT MUST I DO TO LIVE WELL AND BE HAPPY? We are in constant search for the meaning of all our actions! DEFINING ETHICS Etymologically, Ethics comes from the Greek word eGoc (ethos) which means “Customs, Usage, or Character”. Ethics is a set of rules of human behavior, which has been in standards set by the society or by himself in relation to_his society poe 1989). The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. Ethics Is a practical and normative science, based on reason, which studies human acts, and provides norms for their goodness and badness (Timbreza, 1993). As practical science, ‘© Ethics deals with a systematized body of knowledge that is applicable to human action. ‘» The primary consideration of Ethics is the application of human knowledge and its practicality to human experience. Thus, ethics is an indispensable part of man’s daily existence. 4 Asa normative science, Ethics sets a basis or norm for the direction and regulation of human actions. + Itsets rules and guidelines to maintain a sense of direction to human actions It aids man in distinguishing whether one’s action can be considered good or bad. ETHICS. * Is based on REASON. Alll ethical theories and all moral decisions must have its basis from the power of reason. * Is Different from RELIGION or THEOLOGY. Philosophy accepts truth on the basis of reason. Those who do not believe in God may still have moral life. Sometimes, those who believe in God may even be more immoral than those who don’t. Studies HUMAN ACTS, Ethics particularly deals with voluntary human conduct. meep 9n9N.2091! NOT FOR SAL EAJNAUTHORIZED REPROThe Three Approaches to Ethics Philosophers today usually divide ethical theories into three general subject areas: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. 4 Meta-ethics. It deals with the nature of moral judgment. It looks at the origins and meaning of ethical principles. ‘ Are ethical principles merely social inventions? Do they involve more than expressions of our individual emotions? Meta-ethical answers to these questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will of God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms themselves. 4 Normative ethics. It is concerned with the content of moral judgments and the criteria for what is right or wrong. It takes on a more practical task, which is to arrive at moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct. This may involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others. 4 Applied ethics. It involves examining specific controversial issues, such as abortion, infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment, or nuclear war. | Based on the given definition, what benefits can you get from studying the ethics course? WHY STUDY ETHICS There are several compelling reasons for you to study Ethics. These ar 4/6 Ethics is the very investigation of the meaning of life. You will be guided in understanding what real happiness is. It will help you understand that man’s ultimate goal is not acquisition of material goods rather his actual fulfilment lies in the development of the moral quality It provides for you an idea of what right living is all about and the importance of acquiring good moral character It can give the necessary guidelines for the acquisition of his goal. Character-building. DSSP 2020-2021 | NOT FOR SALE/UNA RIZED REPRODUCTIONFREEDOM AS FOUNDATION OF MORALITY ‘A human act is a conscious, voluntary and free act. Thus, you hold responsibility for your actions, If your act turns out to be good then you deserve the good consequences that come after. If your act turns out to be evil, you are held accountable for the negative impacts. A human act is an act determined by the will and nothing else. This means that you are not forced nor coerced to perform an act. Here, freedom is referred to as internal or psychological (the freedom to decide), and not to external freedom (the freedom to carry out one’s decision). Internal freedom, or free will, exists when the decision of the will is necessary and unavoidable. It consists in choosing the means for an end. This includes the freedom to choose between doing an action or not, and of choosing between two possible actions. Freedom implies knowledge; ignorance is an obstacle to the capacity to choose. Thus, freedom depends on truth. Even more, freedom makes man more capable of loving truth and growing in the knowledge of moral values. Truth is not the same as “opinion” or “one’s own judgment,” but rather an objective reality. A free act is always voluntary, since something is chosen through the will (voluntas), according to what the intellect—also led by the will—concludes and presents. Freedom is a necessary condition for acts to be fully voluntary. Freedom we understand (rather than the choice itself) mastery over one’s acts: self-mastery and self- determination, which allow man to master himself and to act by himself. to the extent that they are voluntary. The way to acquire and develop one's freedom is to make good use of responsibility. @ THE NEED TO REDEFINE ETHICS At this point in time, do you consider yourself “free”? Our concept of goodness has changed in the course of time. Goodness before was gauged on the basis moral norms, i.e, Maria is living a good life because she is honest and kind. But when we began to taste a more pleasurable life through technological advances, our concept of goodness is now becoming dependent to physical pleasures. Hence, we begin to look at things as moral in their capacity to provide pleasure and prevent pain. 2020-2021 | NOT F PRODUCTIONWe are now inclined to a hedonistic lifestyle. Be n> a Wicked party all night for a Week echoed to every individual! SYNTHESIS + Good Life was not an issue among the primitive people in the ancient times. In the civilization era, it became a point of inquiry when people began to compare their ideas, beliefs, customs, and traditions with others. Civilization has led man to think in a spatiotemporal dimension (time and space). Human beings now see the connection between his present actions and the consequences thereof. Goodness and beauty are considered always to be connected with their daily activities - thus becomes causal and material. Ethics involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. It is both a practical and normative science. It is based on reason, different from religion or theology and it studies human acts. The three approaches to ethics are meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Freedom is the foundation of morality. A human act is a “free” act, i.e., a person is not forced nor coerced to perform an act. The present era, influence by a hedonistic mentality, created a situation where Ethics has to be redefined and echoed to every individual! OSSP 2020-2021 | NOT FOR PRODUCTIONCHAPTER 2 MORAL STANDARDS AND MORAL DILEMMA © LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of the chapter, you are expected to: Lesson 1: Moral Standards * Distinguish moral and normative statements * Articulate the difference between moral and non-moral standards « Explain how ethics differs from law, religion, and culture + Lesson 2: Moral Dilemma * Define moral dilemma * Recall moral dilemmas in your personal experiences Identify the types and three levels of moral dilemmas = Appraise experiences as moral dilemma or non-dilemma « Assess whether the moral dilemma is on the micro, meso, or macro level + Explain how ethics differs from law, religion, and culture me INPUT LESSON 1: MORAL STANDARDS THE NATURE OF MORAL STATEMENTS Moral statements are categorized as normative statements rather than factual statements. A normative statement expresses a value judgment, a kind of judgment that claims that something “ought” to be the case as distinct from a factual judgment that claims that something “is” the case. As such, when one makes a normative statement, he/she presents an evaluative account of how things should be rather than what things are. Thus, we assess the correctness of normative statements by looking at certain criteria, standards or norms instead of focusing on empirical data, However, as can be seen in the examples below, aside from moral statements, there are various kinds of normative statements that have their corresponding basis of assessment: You ought to return the excess change to Moral Standard the cashier There should be unity, balance, and ‘Aesthetic Standard contrast in your painting. You ought to use the preposition “in” rather Grammatical Standard than “on” It is illegal to make a U-turn there. Legal Standard ‘Cover your mouth when you laugh Standard of Etiquette DSSP 2020-2021l NOT ALE/UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTIONAs mentioned above, since a factual statement expresses a claim that something is the case, its claim can be empirically assessed as true or false based on either research, observation, or experiment. For example: Jose P. Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896 in Baqumbayan. Some tribes in India practice cannibalism Observation The Coronavirus Infectious disease is Scientific Research airborne. A blue litmus paper will turn red when Experiment dipped in an acid solution. ‘Cover your mouth when you laugh Standard of Etiquette Take note that since a moral statement is a normative statement rather than a factual one, it cannot be justified by merely appealing to facts, empirical evidences, or data. Although providing facts may be significant in justifying a moral claim, this remains insufficient. Consider the following argument: According to a study of ten countries that enforce the death penalty, the rate of criminality in these countries went down after it has been enforced. Therefore, it is morally right to enforce the death penalty. The premise “According to a study of ten countries that enforce the death penalty, the rate of criminality in these countries went down after it has been enforced” is a factual statement. This statement is established by gathering statistical data to arrive at a factual claim. However, it is not sufficient to make the moral conclusion “Therefore, it is morally right to enforce the death penalty”. There is a need to supply certain moral standards or principles such as “An act is right if it promotes the greater good of the people” to connect the factual statement and the moral conclusion. The moral argument should be: ‘According to a study of ten countries that enforce the death penalty, the rate of criminality in these countries went down after it has been enforced. (Factual Statement) An act Is right if it promotes the greater good of the people. (Moral Statement) Therefore, it is morally right to enforce the death penalty. (Moral ON VS IS ie Rh eta Nevertheless, though some people may also accept or agree with the fact that death penalty can reduce the rate of criminality in our society, they still hold that it is morally wrong to impose the death penalty as they believe that the right to life of a human being ZED REPRODUCTION DSSP 2020-20211 NOT FOR SALE/UNAUTIis sacred and inviolable. Thus, despite the greater good to society that the imposition of death penalty may bring about, others would still regard it as morally unacceptable. Going further, ho do we determine the acceptability of factual and moral statements? For factual statements, we appeal to empirical data through research and observation. For moral statements, like other normative statements, we appeal to norms and standards. @ Create a simple moral argument on “Abortion” containing factual and moral statements. MORAL VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS We have seen earlier that aside from moral statements, there are other statements that are normative, that is, those justified and accepted based on standards rather than facts. However, these normative statements are justified by moral standards. So what are these other normative standards? And how do they differ from moral standards? The following are examples of non-moral standards: Standards of Etiquette - standards by which we judge manners as good or bad Standards of Law - standards by which we judge an action to be legally right or wrong Standards of Language - standards by which we judge what is grammatically right and wrong Standards of Aesthetics - standards by which we judge good and bad art Standards of Athletics - standards by which we judge how well a basketball or a football game is being played Ethicists have identified a number of characteristics that speak of the nature of moral standards. Although each of these characteristics may not be unique to moral standards, if taken together, they can distinguish moral standards from non-moral standards. 1) Moral standards deal with matters that we think can seriously harm or benefit human beings. Whether human dignity is respected or degraded, work conditions are safe or dangerous, and products are beneficial or detrimental to our health are matters that affect human well-being. 2) Moral standards have universal validity. They apply to all who are in the relevantly similar situation. If it is morally wrong for a person A to do act X, then it is wrong to do X for anyone relevantly similar to P. This characteristic Is exemplified in the moral rule: “Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you”. 3) Moral standards are generally thought to have a particularly overriding Importance, that Is, people feel they should prevail over other values. For an Instance, a violation of the moral rule against killing or stealing Is more important than an error in grammar or a travelling violation in basketball. Moral standards are not established by the decisions of authoritarian bodies, nor are they solely determined by appealing to consensus or tradition. The validity of moral standards lies on the adequacy of reasons that support or justify them. So long as these reasons are adequate, the standards remain valid. 4 neep 2n9n..20911 NOT FOR GAL EAJNALT REPRODUCTIONSOURCES OF AUTHORITY Several common ways of thinking about ethics are based on the idea that the standards of valuation or moral standards are imposed by a higher authority that commands our obedience. Nevertheless, we shall see how ethics differs from etiquette, law, and religion. ETHICS AND ETIQUETTE Etiquette refers to the set of rules or customs that determine the accepted behaviors in a particular social group. Following these rules makes us show respect and courtesy to others. In eating out, for an instance, one should wait until all the people on the table have been served before he/she starts eating. Aside from dining, we have etiquette at certain occasions such as baptism and funeral, we have etiquette on riding a public transportation, SOCIAL == NICE BBEST: Po E aa doing business, and communicating. These so-called rules of etiquette vary from one culture to another. Etiquette is concerned with proper behavior. It is arbitrary and more culture-based. To get other's approval of our action, to be thought of well by people, and to show respect to them, we try to observe common rules of etiquette. Violating the rules can lead society to consider you Ill-mannered, impolite, or even uncivilized - but not necessarily unethical or immoral. Take note that following what etiquette demands does not necessarily mean acting morally. Scrupulous observance of rules of etiquette can camouflage moral issues. Before the laws against racial discrimination were enacted in the America, it was thought that It is bad believed that such rule of etiquette is rooted in racial discrimination and human degradation, promoting or simply conforming to such rule does not amount to doing the moral thing. Such was the point of shown by a 42 - year old black woman named Rose Parks when she was asked, she stood her ground knowing that she has not done anything immoral. On the contrary, she believed she was doing the morally right thing to do as she fought for equality and fairness. Though morality and etiquette are not synonymous with each other, there is a relationship between the two since both concern human action. Disregarding or scorning etiquette can be considered immoral in certain circumstances. Once the custom is adopted, the practice takes on the importance of a moral rule. For an instance, in Islamic societies, standards of modesty call for a woman to cover her body, particularly her chest. Thus, some Muslim women wear hijab or a scarf that covers the head and neck and falls below the level of the shoulders to cover the upper chest area. Following this practice makes these women believe that it protects women’s dignity and promote modesty. P 2020-20211 NOT FOR S, UTHORIZED REPRODUCTIONETHICS AND LAW Law is an ordinance of reason, promulgated by legitimate authority, to be adhered by all, for the purpose common good. Like etiquette, law also regulates human conduct, which Is why it is often confused with morality. The moral imperative not to kill a person coincides with the legal imperative not to commit murder or homicide. Positive Law. This refers to the different rules and regulations that are posited or put forward by an authority figure that require compliance. Examples: constitution, republic acts, ordinances. The law is enforced by way of a system of sanctions administered through persons and institutions, which all help in compelling us to obey. As a basis of ethics, the law has the benefit of providing us with an objective standard that is obligatory and applicable to all. But, should we equate ethics or morality with law? Law and morality are different. Breaking the law is not always an immoral act, just as following the law is not necessarily doing what is morally right. Suppose one of your family members suffered a heart attack and he/she needed to be brought to the hospital immediately. You took him/her in your car and rushed to the hospital driving at a speed of 120 kph. Although you are prohibited by law to drive at more than 60 kph on that road, it does not seem morally right for you to follow the law and drive at that speed limit knowing that doing so will jeopardize the life of your loved one. Take note as well that an action that is legal can be morally disturbing. We might find that there are certain ways of acting which are not forbidden by law but are ethically questionable to us. For an instance, abortion may be legal ina particular country, but the question whether it is morally right to commit it remains an Issue especially for pro-life advocates. Another, while it is legal to exempt a convict from getting jailed due to humanitarian considerations, it is morally disturbing to see how this legal measure favors the elite and deprives the poor. Still other, if you remember Janet Napoles of the PDAF Scam, she repeatedly invoked the right to self-incrimination, thus evading the questions and being mum on what she knew about the politicians who were involved in corruption. It may be legal to remain silent rather than to tell the truth, but such act jeopardizes truth and justice, and thus is morally questionable. Case Scenario! A toddler had been run over by a couple of vehicles. It was witnessed by Juan, Pedro, and Maria. No one among them helped the child. Ww Later on, the child died. Can Juan, Pedro, and Maria be criminally charged for the death of the toddler? Can they be legally sanctioned? Are they morally liable? Laws may be enacted, amended, or repealed by legislators to protect their vested interests, and may not really be beneficial to the general welfare. One may wonder why the Anti-Political Dynasty bill which aims to remove the concentration of political power within a particular clan has been proposed in the Philippine Congress several times TION necp 9already, but has not gotten the nod of the legislators. It can be surmised that enacting such law will be detrimental to the interests of those political personalities in the Congress. ETHICS AND RELIGION Ethics is often identified with religion. In various societies around the world, religion has so much influenced the moral life of the people so as to be seen as indistinguishable from morality. People actually think tend to think that what is right can be derived from religious beliefs and teaching. Because this line of thinking is anchored on the idea that God is the source of goodness, living a moral life, then, is achieved by adhering to God’s will, while acting immorally is disobeying God. Religion teaches us one thing: “One is obliged to obey his/her God in all things” As foundation for ethical values, this is referred to as the divine command theory. Many of us had been brought up with one form of religious upbringing or another, so it is very possible that there is a strong inclination in us to refer to our religious background to back up our moral valuations. Taking religion as basis of ethics has the advantage of providing us with not only a set of commands but also of Supreme Authority that can inspire and compel our obedience in a way that nothing else can, Should morality be based on religion? Let's take a look at Euthyphro’s Dilemma. Euthypro: But I would certainly say that the holy Is what all the gods love, and that the opposite, what all the gods hate, is unholy... Socrates: Perhaps we should learn better my friend. For consider: Is the holy loved by the gods because it is holy? Or is it holy because it is loved by God? Although religion gives moral basis and direction to people, thinking that morality depends on religion raise some problems: 1) Can we really be certain about what God wants us to do? ‘On the practical level, we realize the presence of a multiplicity of religions. Each faith demands differently from its adherents, which would result in conflicting ethical standards. There should be a basis of morality that transcends religious boundaries, lest we fail to carry out an objective rational moral discussion with people from other religions. 2) The moral directives given by world’s great religions are general and imprecise. People encounter moral dilemmas in particular situations or contexts that demand specific moral precept. For example, a certain religion would restrict “blood” for it is impure. This restriction includes the prohibition of getting blood transfusion. In certain health concerns, this restriction would raise the issue of whether or not it is God's will that a person must refuse blood transfusion even neep 9090-20911 NOT FOR SAL E/UNAUTI IZED REPRODUC’if that person's life is at stake. What do religions say regarding more complex yet specific moral issues of today’s world such as artificial reproduction, genetic engineering or the use of animals in research? As rational beings, we are doing ourselves a disservice if we simply base our judgment of right and wrong on what our religion dictates. We merely have to know what our religion says about a certain moral issue and conform to it. But are we leading a rational life if this is how we view morality? What is our rational ability for? Religion can guide us in making moral judgment and leading a moral life, but morality should transcend religion. Ultimately, it is a matter of reason rather than mere adherence to religion. LESSON 2: MORAL DILEMMA Moral conflict is a fact of moral life. It is something that we can never do away with. Tt is embedded in the crucial decisions that we make, particularly in moments that we are faced with what is and what should be. As moral as we want to be, our convictions are oftentimes challenged, and if not strong enough, are dejectedly compromised. These challenges are products of the evolving values and moral systems of our society. A dilemma is a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which is acceptable. As we can see, the key here is that the person has choices to make that will all have results he/she does not want. For example, a town mayor faces a dilemma about how to protect and preserve a virgin forest and at the same time allow miners and loggers for economic development in the town. It must be noted, however, that if a person is in a difficult situation but is not forced to choose between two or more options, then that person is not in a dilemma. The least that we can say is that that person is just experiencing a problematic or distressful situation. Thus, the most logical thing to do for that person is to look for alternatives or solutions to address the problem. When dilemmas involve human actions which have moral implications, they are called ethical or moral dilemmas. Moral dilemmas arise due to inconsistency in our principles. In understanding the morality of an individual, we need to emphasize that majority of the moral persons are those who sturdily disposed to stand fast by their refiectively chosen principles and ideals when tempted by consideration chosen that are morally irrelevant. We experience a moral dilemma if we are faced with two actions, each of which, it would be correct to say in the appropriate sense of “ought”, that it ought to be done, and both of which we cannot do. DSSP 2020-20211 NOT FOR SALE/UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTIONTYPES OF MORAL DILEMMA There are several types of moral dilemmas, but the most common of them are categorized into the following: 1) epistemic and ontological dilemmas, 2) self-imposed and world-imposed dilemmas, 3) obligation dilemmas and prohibition dilemmas, and 4) single agent and multi-person dilemmas. 1) A) Epistemic moral dilemmas - involve situations wherein two or more moral requirements conflict with each other and that the moral agent hardly knows which of the conflicting moral requirements takes precedence over the other. In other words, the moral agent here does not know which option is morally right or wrong. Example: I ought to honor my promise to my son to be home early, but on my way home I saw a sick old man who needs to be brought to the hospital. Where does my actual duty lie? We cannot deny that there are conflicting duties (moral requirements) here, but we need to note that we want a fuller knowledge of the situation: Is an important purpose being served by my getting home early? How serious is the condition of the sick old man? Indeed, I could hardly decide which option is morally right in this situation. However, one option must be better than the other; only, it needs fuller knowledge of the situation—thus the term “epistemic” moral dilemmas. B) Ontological moral dilemmas - involve situations wherein two or more moral requirements conflict with each other, yet neither of these conflicting moral requirements overrides each other. This is not to say that the moral agent does not know which moral requirement is stronger than the other. The point is that neither of the moral requirements is stronger than the other; hence, the moral agent can hardly choose between the conflicting moral requirements. Example: A military doctor is attending to the needs of the wounded soldiers in the middle of the war. Unfortunately, two soldiers urgently need a blood transfusion. However, only one bag of blood is available at the moment. To whom shall the doctor administer the blood transfusion? For sure, we could not tell whether administering a blood transfusion to Soldier A is more moral than administering a blood transfusion to Soldier B, and vice versa. 2) A) A Self-imposed Moral Dilemma is caused by the moral agent’s wrongdoings. Example: For example, David is running for the position of the town mayor. During the campaign period, he promised the indigenous peoples in his community to protect their virgin forest just to gain their votes, but at the same time, he seeks financial support from a mining corporation. Fortunately, David won the elections, yet he is faced with the dilemma of fulfilling his promised to the indigenous peoples and at the same time allows the mining corporation to destroy their forest. Indeed, through his own actions, David created a situation in which it is impossible for him to be discharged from both obligations. 120-2021] NOT FOR SALE/UNAUTHO D REPRODUCTIONB) A World-imposed Moral Dilemma means that certain events in the world place the agent in a situation of moral conflict. Example: William Styron’s famous Sophie's Choice: "Sophie Zawistowska has been asked to choose which of her two children, Eva or Jan, will be sent to the gas chamber in Auschwitz. An SS doctor, Fritz Jemand von Niemand, will grant a dispensation to only one of Sophie's children. If she does not choose which one should live, Dr. von Niemand will send both to their death. Sophie chooses her daughter Eva to go to the gas chamber. Her son, Jan, is sent to the Children’s Camp.” 3) A) Obligation dilemmas are situations in which more than one feasible action is obligatory. Example: Sartre (1957) tells of a student whose brother had been killed in the German offensive of 1940. The student wanted to avenge his brother and to fight forces that he regarded as evil. But the student’s mother was living with him, and he was her one consolation in life. The student believed that he had conflicting obligations. Sartre describes him as being torn between two kinds of morality: one of limited scope but certain efficacy, personal devotion to his mother; the other of much wider scope but uncertain efficacy, attempting to contribute to the defeat of an unjust aggressor. B) Prohibition dilemmas involve cases in which all feasible actions are forbidden. Example: See Styron’s Sophie's Choice above. 4) A) Single Agent Dilemma - the agent “ought, all things considered, to do A, ought, all things considered, to do B, and she cannot do both A and B”. In other words, the moral agent is compelled to act on two or more equally the same moral options but she cannot choose both. Example: A medical doctor found out that her patient has HIV. For sure, the medical doctor may experience tension between the legal requirement to report the case and the desire to respect confidentiality, although the medical code of ethics acknowledges our obligation to follow legal requirements and to intervene to protect the vulnerable. B) Multi-person Dilemma - occurs in situations that involve several persons like a family, an organization, or a community who is expected to come up with consensual decision on a moral issue at hand. The multi-person dilemma requires more than choosing what is right, it also entails that the persons involved reached a general consensus. In such a manner, the moral obligation to do what is right becomes more complicated. On the one hand, the integrity of the decision ought to be defended on moral grounds. On the other hand, the decision must also prevent the organization from breaking apart.Examples: A family may be torn between choosing to terminate or prolong the life of a family member. An organization may have to choose between complying with the wage law by cutting its workforce or by retaining its current workforce by paying them below the required minimum wage. LEVELS OF ETHICAL DILEMMA IN THE WORKPLACE 1) Individual/Micro-level. The dilemma here is when the employee's ethical standards are in opposition to that of his or her employer, which could lead to tensions in the workplace. Dilemma: You see one of your close colleagues speaking inappropriately to another member of staff. This has been going on for a while, and you're sure that what you are seeing is sexual harassment. You know your colleague's actions are wrong, but you don’t want to ruin the friendship you've developed with them over the past few years. What would you do? 2) Organizational/ Meso-level. _ Ethical Standards are seen in company policies. Still, there might be a gap between those who run the business whose ethical standards deviate from that of the organization. Dilemma: A new manager has been appointed to. lead your department, and you find out that he is the boss's nephew. You also discover that he doesn’t have the appropriate qualifications, and that he may not have been interviewed before he was hired. Do you question the decision or simply accept it? 3) Systemic/Macro-level. Ethics, here, is predisposed by the larger operating environment of the company. Political pressures, economic conditions, societal attitudes and others, can affect the operating standards and policies of the organization where it might face moral dilemmas outside of the organization but within the macro-society where it belongs. 10/11 DSSP 2020-2021] NOT UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTIONA dilemma is a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which is acceptable. Moral dilemmas arise due to inconsistency in our principles. Moral Dilemmas vary in types such as epistemic and ontological; self- imposed and world-imposed; obligation and prohibition; single agent and multi-person 4 Moral dilemmas are experience in the individual, organizational and systemic levels. + UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTIONCHAPTER 3 CHARACTER-BASED ETHICS © LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of the chapter, you are expected to: Lesson 1: Aristotle and Virtue Ethics * Discuss the meaning and basic principles of virtue ethics * Distinguish virtuous acts from non-virtuous acts * Apply Aristotle's ethics in understanding one’s actions Lesson 2: Thomas Aquinas and Natural Law Theory «Identify the basic tenets of the natural law ethics * Assess human actions using the three determinants of morality « Apply the precepts of the natural law to contemporary moral concerns & INPULesson 1: Aristotle and Virtue Ethics Virtue Ethics is the ethical framework that is concerned with understanding the good as a matter of developing the virtuous character of a person. It focuses on the formation of one’s character brought about by determining and doing virtuous acts. As a matter of fact, Aristotle’s book entitled Nicomachean Ethics is the first comprehensive and programmatic study if virtue ethics. ARISTOTLE of STAGIRA Born in 384 B.C. in Stagira in northern Greece, Aristotle was a Greek philosopher who pioneered systematic, scientific examination in literally every area of human knowledge and was known, in his time, as "the man who knew everything" and later simply as "The Philosopher”. During the later Middle Ages (c. 1300-1500 CE), he was referred to as "The Master", most notably in Dante's Inferno where the author did not need to even identify Aristotle by name for him to be recognized. This particular epithet is apt in that Aristotle wrote on, and was considered a master in, disciplines as diverse as biology, politics, metaphysics, agriculture, literature, botany, medicine, mathematics, physics, ethics, logic, and the theatre. He is traditionally linked in sequence with Socrates and Plato in the triad of the three greatest Greek philosophers. Plato (|. c. 428-348 BCE) was a student of Socrates (|. ¢. 469/470-399 BCE) and Aristotle studied under Plato. Aristotle was 18 when he was sent to Athens to study at Plato's Academy where he remained for the next 20 years. He was hired by Philip II, King of Macedon (r, 359-336 BCE) as tutor for his son Alexander the Great (|. 356-323 BCE) and made such an impression on the youth that Alexander carried Aristotle's works with him on campaign and introduced his philosophy niece nae EAJNAUTHOR| TION,to the east when he conquered the Persian Empire. Through Alexander, Aristotle’s works were spread throughout the known world of the time, influencing other philosophies and providing a foundation for the development of Jewish, Christian, and Muslim theology. Aristotle established the Lyceum, known as a Peripatetic School (from the Greek word peripatos, which means stroll) as it is believed that Aristotle liked to stroll through the school's tree filled groves discussing philosophy and the principles of mathematics and rhetoric with his students. ARISTOTLE’S VIRTUE THEORY Imagine a person who: «Always knows what to say * Can diffuse a tense situation * Deliver tough news gracefully « Confident without being arrogant . Brave but not reckless | Generous but never extravagant Could you think of a person/s whom you know (a family member, a friend, a classmate, or an acquaintance) who possess the said traits? Is there any? Who Aristotle believed that while rare, people of such character do exist. And they are all what we should aspire to be: VIRTUOUS. The “Virtue Theory” reflects the ancient assumption that humans have a fixed nature - an essence - and that the way we flourish is by adhering to that nature. ERGON (PROPER FUNCTION) Every species has its own role in the universe. It is in fulfilling its role well that defines what is the ultimate good of that thing or animal. Everything has a function! Something is good if it fulfills its function well, and bad if it fails to do so. For example: The function of a knife is to cut. A knife that cannot cut is a dull/bad a — £08. hirfye — knife. m CAI EAJINAUTHORIZE TION pice aaah nee) iarWhat is the proper function of human beings like us? Like animals and plants, we need to: Grow, be healthy and be fertile. But unlike them, we are rational and social beings. Aristotle argues that the ergon of humans consists in activity of the rational part of the soul in accordance with virtue. Our function involves the use of reason and getting along with our pack. What defines a person therefore is his/her function or activity of reason. A person’s action to be considered truly human must be an act that is always in accordance to reason. ARETE (VIRTUE AS EXCELLENCE) Our actions as human persons must be in accordance to reason. Aristotle adds that we must execute our reasonable actions well or excellently. This excellent way of doing things is call virtue or arete in Greek. So, what exactly does it mean to be virtuous? Aristotle sald that having virtue means doing the right thing, at the right time, in the right way, in the right amount, toward the right people. A virtuous person: knows what to do all the time; can handle himself or herself; has a good judgment; can read a room; knows what's right and when. Aristotle understood virtue as a set of robust character traits that, once developed, will lead to predictably good behavior. This means that being virtuous cannot be accomplished by a single act. One does not become excellent person overnight. A morally virtuous person aims at the middle, intermediate or mesotes for the Greeks. He is concerned with achieving his appropriate action in a manner that is neither excessive nor deficient, Virtue is the midpoint between two extremes. It is just the right amount - the sweet spot between the extreme of excess and the extreme of deficiency. Let’s take a look at the virtue of COURAGE. ———__—_—__—_———__ While walking, you saw a lady being robbed. What Is the courageous action for you to take? Ld - Run over and stop the mugging? Does courage mean putting yourself in harm’s way for a good cause? For Aristotle, a virtuous person would first take stock of the situation. If you size up the mugger and have a good reason to believe that you could safely intervene, then intervention is probably the courageous choice. But if you assess that intervention is likely to put both you and the victim in danger, then the courageous choice is to call for help. A courageous person: assesses the situation; knows his/her own abilities; takes action that is right in the particular situation. neep 2020.2021| NOT FOR SALE/UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCAnyhow, Aristotle Virtue Theory is popular for what is referred to as the Doctrine of. the Golden Mean. Aristotle's doctrine of the mean consists of three pillars that work together to form a complete account: First, there is a sort of equilibrium that the good person is in. This Is related to a medical idea that a healthy person is in a balanced state. For example, one’s body temperature is neither too high nor too low. Related to ethics, one’s character does not go to extremes. For example, one does not overreact to situations, but rather keeps his composure. Equilibrium is the right feelings at the right time about the right things, toward the right people, for the right end, and in the right way. The second pillar states that the mean we should strive for is relative to us. The intermediate of an object is unchanging; if twelve is excess and four is deficiency, then roughly eight is the intermediate in that object. Aristotle proposes something different for finding an intermediate relative to oneself. Aristotle’s ethics are not a one-size-fits-all system; what he is looking for Is the mean that Is good for a particular individual. For example, watering a small plant with a gallon of water is excessive but watering a tree with a gallon of water is deficient. This is because different plants have different needs for water intake and if the requirements for each plant are not met, the plant will die from root rot (excess) or dehydration (deficiency). The third pillar is that each virtue falls between two vices. Virtue is like the mean because it is the intermediate between two vices. On this model a triad is formed with one vice on either end (excess or deficiency) and the virtue as the intermediate. If one’s character is too near either vice, then the person will incur blame but if one’s character is near the intermediate, the person deserves praise. Proper participation In each of these three pillars is necessary for a person to lead a virtuous and therefore happy life. Meanwhile, Aristotle also provides examples of particular virtues and the corresponding excesses and deficiencies of these: Sphere of Type of Vice of Too Virtue Vice of Too Action/ Emotion or Much (Mean) Little Kind of Attitude Excess (Deficiency) Situation Responses to Fear, Foolhardiness Courage Cowardice danger Confidence Satisfaction of Physical | Overindulgence | Temperance Inhibition appetites pleasure Giving Gifts Desire to help | Extravagance Generosity Miserliness Pursuit of Desire to Vaulting Proper Unambitiousness Accomplishments succeed ambition ambition ‘Appraisal of Self Vanity Proper pride Sense of Oneself Confidence Inferiority Self-Expression | Desire to be Boastfulness Truthfulness. False Modesty recognized Heep 909N.2n91 | NOT NAUTHORIZED REPRODUCResponse to Anger Irascibility Patience Apathy insults Social Conduct Attitudes to | Obsequiousness | Friendliness Rudeness others Awareness of Shame Shyness Modesty Shamelessness one’s flaws Conversation, Amusement Buffoonery Wittiness Boorishness humor For Aristotle, the task of targeting the mean is always difficult because every situation is different from one another. Thus, the mesotes is constantly moving depending on the circumstance where the person is. The task of being moral involves seriously looking into and understanding a situation and assessing properly every particular detail relevant to the determination of the mean. But If I have to figure out what virtue Is in every situation, how can I possibly ever learn to be virtuous? For Aristotle, virtue is a skill, a way of living, and that’s something that can only be learned through experience. Phronesis (Practical Wisdom) Practical wisdom is an excellence in knowing the right conduct in carrying out a particular act. One can attain a wisdom that can provide us with a guide on how to behave in our daily lives. Although the condition of being excellent can be attained by a person through the intellectual aspect of the soul, this situation does not make him into a morally good individual, Remember that knowing the good that needs to be done is different from doing the goods that one needs to accomplish. In carrying out a morally virtuous life, one needs the intellectual guide of practical wisdom in steering the self toward the right choices and actions. Meanwhile, Aristotle says that moral virtue is attained by means of habit. A morally virtuous person is someone who habitually determines the good and does the right actions. Being morally good is a process of getting used to doing the proper act. As the saying goes: "Practice makes perfect!” Nevertheless, knowing what the right thing to do entails finding someone who already knows it and emulate them. How will you ever know how to be generous if there is no one who have shown you what generosity is? We learn virtue by watching a virtuous act and doing it until such virtue becomes part of our character. We learn them from whom we can call “Moral Exemplars” @ Who do you consider as your “Moral Exemplars”? eo Why? What virtues did you learn from them? Now, what if I do not like to be the “honest” or “courageous”? Do I really have to become virtuous? What for? Virtue theory says that I should become virtuous to attain the pinnacle of humanity: Happiness. neep 909.9091 | NOT EOR SAL E/UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUC’Eudaimonia (Happiness) Eu- Well/Good eEvdsatovia Daimon -Spirit Aristotle’s concern for the ultimate good is premised on the fact that knowledge of such good is crucial in one’s attainment of a good ethical life for it will equip us, like archers who have a target to aim at, to know the right kind of action to pursue. For him, the ultimate end of all human actions is eudaimonia. A life of Eudamonia is a life of striving. It is a life of pushing yourself to the limits, and find success. It is "happiness" that comes from achieving something really difficult, rather than just having it handed to you! But choosing a Eudaimonistic life means: You're never done improving; You'll face disappointments and failures; You're constantly setting new goals. Eudaimonia means: The sweet pleasure of sinking into bed at the end of an absolutely exhausting day. The satisfaction of knowing you've accomplished a lot, and that you've pushed yourself to be the very best person you could be. Some Criticisms on Aristotle’s Virtue Theory 1) Aristotle's virtue ethics fails to lay down a clear basis to determine what we ought to do, and not do. It does not provide guidance on how we should act morally in particular situations, or how we should deal with moral issues in our society such as abortion, death penalty, same-sex union, and human trafficking. The call to be virtuous needs to be guided by certain norms that will enable the individual to determine which course of action is morally correct. 2) Aristotle's directive to look for the mean between the extremes of deficiency and excess does not provide the needed guidance in distinguishing between right and wrong in every situation. While Aristotle gives several aspects to consider as indicated in the words “right time, right object, right person, right motive, right way,” there is nonetheless, no clear measure to determine if what is right and moderate has been achieved after committing or failing to commit an act. There are no clear guidelines on how often should we get angry nor on how angry should we get. 3) Aristotle’s claim that humans have just one distinctive function is problematic. For existentialists and post modernists, one’s purpose, function or nature is something that the individual creates and chooses for him or herself and, therefore, varies from one person to another. We cannot assume that humans, being self-determining agents, actually have a unique and clearly defined function independent of their own volition. Despite its problematic features, Aristotle’s virtue ethics remains to be an influential ethical theory. One of these is the emphasis Aristotle gives to the development of a good character as an essential aspect of living a moral life. It is not enough that one knows what the right thing to do. One has to have a good character to be able to do a good act. Lesson 2: Thomas Aquinas and Natural Law Theory Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics paved the way for the development of the Natural Law Ethics developed by St. Thomas Aquinas, a prominent theologian and philosopher of the Medieval Period. Aquinas adopted the ethics of Aristotle but transformed it by introducing cen mE E/UNAUTHORI CTIONthe fundamental notion the notion of God as the Creator and Source of the Beingness of Man and the World, It can be said that Aquinas Christianized the philosophy of Aristotle THOMAS AQUINAS Thomas was born in 1225 at Roccasecca, near Aquino, about halfway between Rome and Naples. His father hoped that his son would someday enjoy high ecclesiastical position, hence, at the age of 5, Thomas was already sent to a monastery. He was fascinated with the life of the Dominican friars and decided to enter their order despite the objections of his family. ‘Thomas entered the University of Paris where he was able to meet a prodigious scholar whose enormous intellectual achievements had earned him the title Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great) and Universal Teacher. Albert the Great possessed a strong interest In Aristotle and it was him who shaped Thomas’ mind in decisive ways by the vast range of his learning and his views on particular problems. The appearance and personality of St. Thomas was well described by G.K. Chesterton: St. Thomas was a huge heavy bull of man, fat, and slow and quiet; very mild and magnanimous but not very sociable; shy, even apart from humility of holiness; and abstracted, even apart from his occasional and carefully concealed experiences of trance and ecstasy..in the schools which he attended, regularly thought he was a dunce...came out of a world where he might have enjoyed leisure, and he remained one of those men whose labor has something of the placidity of leisure. He was a hard worker, but nobody could possibly mistake him for a hustler..ne was by birth a gentleman of a great house, and such repose can remain a habit when it is no longer a motive. Thomas left a huge literacy legacy. Its vastness was considered to be very remarkable because no one would even think that it was all composed with a 20-year span only. His most renowned literary achievements are his two major theological works, the Summa Contra Gentiles and the Summa Theologiae. God as the Creator and the Source of the Beingness of Human Persons How can people follow God’s moral rules (Divine Command) if they even do not Who made the commandments? If we are to accept that God is our Source and Ultimate End, we should at the very least know Him. Can we know the nature of God? Does God really exist? According to St. Thomas, human beings are incapable of knowing the nature of God because our knowledge is limited by its origin in sense experience. Besides, the divine reality is far above the capability of human understanding. However, it is a natural function of the human mind to link effects which it encounters in nature to their causes. Based upon these principles, St. Thomas offered the five proofs of God’s existence, which is known in the Summa Theologiea as the Quinquae Viae. THE QUINQUAE VIAE SALE/UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTIONUNMOVED- Senses show Everything that Aninfiniteseries There has to — MOVER us thatthe — moves is moved of motionis —_—be a first motor world has by another impossible not moved by things that anything change = UNCAUSED Experience There is nothing An infinite causal There has to CAUSE shows us that that is a cause of chain is bea first in a sensible itself impossible efficient cause world there | are efficient causes - _ : We find that Contingent An infinite chain There must be NECESSARY things can beings do not of relatively an absolutely BEING exist or not have the necessary beings necessary exist beginning of is not possible being (contingent) their existence in | oe | themselves | PERFECT In nature, Perfection cannot ‘There isn’t an There must. BEING there is a be due to the infinite series of exist an hierarchy of imperfect but things imperfect absolute values or only something perfect being perfections | even more ee a perfect _ i SUPREME There are Things without The idea of an There has to DESIGNER/ things that awareness can infinitely big bean ORDERER = are not aware_— only aim at a pyramid of intelligent of themselves purpose ifan hierarchy is just —_ being that yet they act intelligent being —_—not possible conduct all with a conducts them things in purpose = nature The given proof of God's existence does not exactly tell us positively what God is: although the five proofs of God's existence may add something to the conception of God. From the idea of the First Mover, God is seen as powerful in order to cause everything to move. From the idea of the First Cause, God is seen as uncaused and therefore, ‘eternal. From the idea of the Necessary Being, God is seen as pure actuality. From the idea of the ultimate truth and goodness, God is seen as perfect goodness. And from the idea of the Orderer or the Designer of the universe, God is seen as the supreme intelligence directing things. THE BASIC GOODS Aquinas argued that god created the world according to natural laws ~ predictable, goal-driven systems whereby life is sustained, and everything functlons smoothly. God has given us instinctual desires for what is best for us, hence, the Basic Goods. i Self-Preservation - * Sustain life «Survival instinct TION E/UNAUTHORIZED.We naturally avoid anything that endangers our life We make more life, we reproduce Some beings can do it on their own We humans need to coordinate with a partner Propagation of Species We have to teach the young basic survival skills, moral and societal Educate One's Offsprings ii We have an instinctual desire to know God, whether we have an idea of God or none. While short periods of solitude can be good, Aquinas believed that we're basically pack animals Live in Community Our desire for love and acceptance, and our susceptibility to peer pressure are all evidences to this. Seek God We feel shame and guilt when we do things that cause our group/pack to turn against us We are natural knowers, inquisitive; and we want to be right Shasiipporenca! Knowledge promotes survival Right actions are those that are derived from the Natural Law. For example: the natural law against killing or murder: MY LIFE IS. YOUR LIFE IS »> YOUR LIFE IS THEN I SHOULD NOT VALUABLE LIKE MINE VALUABLE HARM/KILL YOU! Take note that in every basic good, there is a corresponding prohibition (something we should avoid doing) and positive injunction (something that we must do to promote them). Look at the table below: imi Nya set Preaa vation Promote ite Do not kill Donat avertprevent Propagation of Teoroducion Species Procre SSP 2020-2021 | NOT FOR SALE/UNAUTHORIZED REPRODU!If God created us to seek the good, and if we're built with the @ ability to recognize and seek it, then why do people violate the natural law all the time? Aquinas’ Responses 1) Sometimes, we seek what we think is good, but we're wrong, because we're just ignorant. No matter how awesome God made you, or your desires, you have to have some understanding of how to be awesome. 2) We are emotional creatures, Sometimes, emotions overpower reason and we fail to do the things we know we should. THE THREE DETERMINANTS OF MORAL ACTION Since the human being has been endowed with reason, he is, therefore, capable of determining whether his action is good or bad. On Thomas’ ethical principle, there are three factors that can help a human person determine whether his action is to be considered morally acceptable or not. 1) The Object or The End of An Action (Finis Operas). This refers to that which the act naturally ends before all else. It is the immediate outcome or natural purpose of an act. If the object conforms to the norm of morality, then the object is considered to be good. If the action is in consonance with the natural moral law, then the action is to be considered morally acceptable. 2) The Intention of the Agent (Finis Operantis). This refers to the reason why the agent acts. When the human person does a certain action, he has to make it sure that the action will be for a good end. For Thomas, a good act with a bad motive makes the moral action bad. Likewise, a person may not employ an evil means in order to attain a good end. Aquinas believed that the morality of an action depends on the end. Human acts are good if they promote the purpose of God and His honor and evil if it deviates from the reason and the divine moral law. 3) The Circumstances (Circumstantiae). This |s the condition which, when super added to the nature of the moral act, will certainly affect its morality. This means that a given circumstance, or a set of circumstances, will either mitigate or aggravate the goodness or badness of a particular action. From the ethical principle of Aristotle, Aquinas took the idea that a thing should act in accordance with its nature. The human person must act according to his nature/being: agere sequitur esse (action follows being). If your “being” Is good, then good actions follow. The Ultimate Telos (End) of the human person is to see God face to face (Beatific Vision). Possible only if each and every human person will assume his/her responsibility to channel his action in view of his nature as Imago Dei (God's image and likeness). NATURAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF A HUMAN PERSON Inasmuch as the life of a human being comes from God, each individual, has been endowed with the six natural and inalienable rights. These natural rights are given a corresponding duty or obligation, hence, the natural duties. sues mae anne ED REPRODUCTIC TNOTEOR -ASNAUTRight to Life Duty to Keep Healthy and Take Care of Oneself F Right to Private Property "Duty to Take Care of One’s Property and Respect the Property of Others ~ Right to Marry” Duty to Support One's Familty Right to Physical Freedom or Liberty _-—_—Duty to Respect Private Boundaries [ Right to Worship L ~ Duty for Religious Tolerance Right to Work Duty to Perform One's Best SY SYNTHESIS fe # Aristotle's virtue ethics recognizes that eudaimonia or happiness is the ultimate purpose of a person. Attaining happiness entails performing one’s proper function (ergon), which is to act in accordance to reason in an outstanding manner. It is in doing her function well that virtue, excellence, or arete is realized. Aristotle points out that having intellectual excellence does not make one into a morally good person. Knowing the good and being able to determine the appropriate action in a given situation do no make her do good automatically. To be morally virtuous individual is a constant carrying out of the act of goodness guided by practical wisdom (phronesis). Virtue is practiced through habit. What practical wisdom identifies as the right action according to Aristotle is the mesotes or the middle measure of an action, feeling, or passion. Aquinas adopted the ethics of Aristotle but transformed it by introducing the fundamental notion the notion of God as the Creator and Source of the Beingness of Man and the World. ‘4 Humans are morally obliged to use their reasoning to discern what the laws are and then to act in conformity with them. & What is consistent with the Natural Law is right and what is not in keeping with the Natural Law is wrong. cen onen-9hsi PATEAD CAL CAINALUTHORI JCTION REPRO!