DRAMA
Introduction, miracle and mystery plays.
Unlike Poetry and Fiction, which rely on written or spoken words as their primary means of
expression, Drama combines verbal and non-verbal or visual means like scenery, stage,
make-up and facial expressions among others.
The word itself comes from the Greek “draein” /dren/ which means “to do” or also, “to act”
referring to the performance /pərˈfɒrmæns/ of actors on-scene.
This genre has its roots in ritual culture, that’s why initially plays occurred /ɒˈkɜːrd/ during
festivals in honor of “Dionysos” /daɪ.əˈnaɪ.səs/ the God of wine. We can see some clues of
that cult-like practice even in the classical Greek drama of the 5th century.
Even though Drama was one of the main genres in classical antiquity, its importance
decreased during the period of the Middle Ages.
The two main reasons behind it were that, after “The fall of the Roman Empire”, much of the
infrastructure that supported theatre, like public arenas, collapsed. And the other one was
that plays were starting to be seen as Pagan because of the rise of Christianity.
However, that weakening of the genre didn't last long, since after the turn of the millennium
simple forms of drama re-emerged in mystery and miracle plays.
These plays were biblical and religiously themed, planned to be performed in front of
churches and in the yards of inns. (a type of small theaters with balconies around it)
These medieval plays, together with the classical Roman plays by Plautus /’plɔːtəs/ and
Seneca, influenced later Renaissance /’renəsɑːns/ drama, which reached its first peak in
England with Shakespeare and his contemporaries.
Tragedy, Comedy, History plays
While classical literary theory overlooks the nature of comedy, Aristotle deals extensively
with the general elements and features of tragedy. In “The poetics” he characterizes tragedy
as “a representation of an action that is heroic and complete” “represent men in action, does
not use narrative and trough pity and fear it effects relief”. The audience is meant to
experience a catharsis
Comedy, on the other hand, has humorous themes intended to entertain the audience. It is
seen as a symbolic renewal, often ending in weddings that represent new beginnings.
Renaissance History Plays such as Shakespeare’s, adapt English History for stage
performances. These plays portray a historical event or figure but, trough the addition of
contemporary references, transcend the historical dimension and make general statements
about human weaknesses and virtues.
Shakespeare and Marlowe revived and developed classical forms of drama such as
TRAGEDY and COMEDY and were among the first to reflect on different genres.
Shakespeare parodies various mixed forms which can be reduced to the three basic forms
of tragedy, comedy and history plays
When the Puritans shut down the English theaters on moral and religious grounds, drama
lost its status as a major genre, and it was almost non-existent in the early phases of
American literature and was only re- established as a serious genre in the beginning of the
20th century. In the Romantic period of the early 19th century, England produced the closet
drama, a special form of drama which was not meant to be performed on stage but rather to
be read in private.
With the arrival of Realism and Naturalism in the late 19th century, social mystery was dealt
with on a broader scale and drama regained its importance as a major genre and George
Shaw and Oscar Wilde were among the most important playwrights of this period.
•After years of strict Puritan rule, theaters reopened in England around 1660, when King
Charles II came back to power — this is called the Restoration period.
A new type of play became popular: the comedy of manners. These plays made fun of the
rich upper class and their behavior — especially their love affairs, gossip, and vanity. The
dialogue was full of wit and irony, and women were finally allowed to act on stage.
Famous examples are:
The Country Wife by William Wycherley
The Way of the World by William Congreve
Heroic Drama
At the same time, there was a more serious style called heroic drama. These plays focused
on love, honor, and big moral decisions, often set in grand or exotic locations. They were
inspired by epic poetry, but made for the stage.
For example:
All for Love by John Dryden – a retelling of the story of Antony and Cleopatra, full of
emotional conflict and noble language
Romantic Period & Closet Drama (Early 1800s)
In the Romantic period, drama was less popular on stage, and poetry was more popular
among writers. Some poets wrote closet dramas – these were meant to be read like a poem
or story, not performed.
Closet dramas focused on deep emotions, freedom, and imagination.
For example:
Prometheus Unbound by Percy Bysshe Shelley – a poetic drama about rebellion and human
spirit, based on Greek mythology
Realism and Naturalism (Late 1800s)
In this period, drama became important again. Writers started to show real life problems,
such as poverty, injustice, and inequality.
They used realistic settings, everyday language, and characters from the middle or working
class.
Famous playwrights:
George Bernard Shaw – known for plays that mix humor with strong social messages
(Pygmalion)
Oscar Wilde – combined wit and satire with deeper meanings (The Importance of Being
Earnest)
These plays tried to make the audience think critically about society.
20th Century: New Styles in Modern Drama
As the world changed — with two world wars, revolutions, and new ideas — theater also
changed. Playwrights no longer believed that life could be shown realistically on stage. New
forms appeared:
Expressionist Theater
Focuses on the inner emotions and thoughts of characters. Uses strange sets, lighting, and
symbols instead of realistic settings
Theater of the Absurd
Shows a world where life feels meaningless or confusing. Characters often repeat lines or
act in strange ways
Examples:
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett – two men wait for someone who never comes
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard – a funny but deep play based on
characters from Hamlet
Political Theater
Tries to show problems in society and make the audience reflect or take action
Examples:
Waiting for Lefty by Clifford Odets – about workers fighting for better conditions
The Crucible by Arthur Miller – uses the Salem witch trials to talk about fear and political
repression in 1950s America (the McCarthy era)
To understand how drama works, we need to think about three connected parts: the written
script (text), how it’s prepared for the stage (the transformation), and the final performance.
TEXT
Textual Elements of Drama
In drama, many textual elements such as character, plot, and setting are similar to those in
fiction. So here we’ll focus on aspects unique to drama.
The most important part of the text in drama is the spoken word. This includes dialogue,
monologue or soliloquy, and the aside — which is when a character speaks directly to the
audience, without other characters hearing.
Plot and the Three Unities
The basic elements of plot — exposition, complication, climax, and denouement — originally
come from classical drama and were later used in fiction.
Along with plot, the 'three unities' are important: unity of time, place, and action.
These rules suggest that the action of a play should happen in one place, within one day,
and follow a clear, linear storyline.
Although often linked to Aristotle, they were actually developed later, in the 16th and 17th
centuries.
Acts and Scenes
Another structural element is the division into acts and scenes.
Elizabethan theater used five acts, but in the 19th and 20th centuries, this was reduced to
four or even three.
This division helps change setting and time, while keeping the unity of each scene or act.
Theater of the Absurd
Modern movements like the Theater of the Absurd broke away from traditional plot
structures.
These plays often seem illogical or meaningless, and there is usually no climax or clear
ending.
One of the most famous examples is Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett.
In this play, the characters wait for someone who never comes. There is no real
development, no resolution, and no typical plot structure.
Non-textual Elements
In the 20th century, with Experimental Theater and the Theater of the Absurd, non-verbal
elements became more important.
Things like body language, movement, and visual effects were no longer just supporting
tools — they became just as meaningful as the text itself.
Transformation
Definition
Transformation refers to all the work that happens between reading a play and performing it.
It includes both practical and creative decisions, and it's usually the director's responsibility.
Even though the audience doesn’t see this process, every detail of the final
performance—like the stage design, costumes, or actor movements—is shaped by it.
Role of the Director
The director’s tasks include:
1. Choosing the Script: Selecting which text or play will be produced.
2. Developing a Concept: Deciding on an overarching artistic vision, that is the creative
vision that guides all the decisions.
3. Casting: Selecting and guiding actors into roles that fit the concept.
4. Adapting the Stage: Designing or modifying the physical space to match the concept
(e.g., seating arrangement, levels, scenery).
5. Selecting props, costumes, and makeup—to reflect the style and theme.: Choosing
visual details that reinforce the director’s interpretation.
6. Rehearsals: Coaching actors, helping actors with timing, movement, and emotional
beats.
In short, the director is responsible for artistic coordination—ensuring that text, actors, and
design all serve the same vision.
Historical Evolution of the Director’s Role
In the past, there was no official role called “director.” Until the 19th century, the playwright or
an experienced actor usually managed the performance.
But with the rise of Realism (emphasizing historical and social accuracy) , productions
became more complex, and a dedicated director was needed to unify all elements.
Key Early Figures:
Konstantin Stanislavsky (1863–1938) in Russia: Focused on actors’ psychological realism.
His ideas later influenced American practitioners like Lee Strasberg.
Max Reinhardt (1873–1943): Known for spectacular, visually innovative stagings that broke
from strict realism.
In the 20th century, as new theatre movements like Expressionism and the Theatre of the
Absurd appeared, the director's creativity became even more important—almost like that of
the playwright. Audiences began to recognize the director as an artist in their own right,
shaping the play’s style just as much as the text itself.
Director as Interpreter
The director’s concept is akin to a conductor interpreting a musical score. Every
choice—what lines to highlight, how to block a scene, which props to use—is an interpretive
act aimed at communicating a particular “take” on the text.
Contemporary examples:
Ellis Rabb’s homoerotic Merchant of Venice (1970): Showed how a director can retune a
classic play to address modern social issues (in this case, sexuality).
Feminist adaptations of The Taming of the Shrew: Reimagined Shakespeare’s gender
politics for 20th-century audiences.
Robert Wilson’s avant-garde stagings: Borrowed from visual arts to create slow, painterly
tableaux rather than naturalistic performances.
In each case, the director must understand the cultural and temporal context of the
audience. Sometimes, aligning with a social movement (e.g., feminism) helps a production
resonate deeply; other times, a radical departure from the norm (as with Wilson’s work) can
provoke fresh insight.
Spatial Considerations in Theatre
In theatre, space matters. These theatre designs were not only physical spaces, but they
also changed the way plays were performed and how audiences experienced drama.
Today I’m going to talk about two important types of theatre spaces: the Greek amphitheatre
and the Elizabethan theatre.
🏛️ Greek Amphitheatre
Let’s begin with the Greek amphitheatre. These theatres were built outdoors, often on
hillsides, with the audience sitting in semi-circles that went up the slope. This shape helped
everyone see the stage clearly.
At the centre was a round space called the orchestra, where the chorus sang and danced.
Behind it was the skene, a stage building where actors changed costumes and entered or
exited the scene.
The way the theatre was built helped actors’ voices and movements reach the audience,
even those seated far away. The space was designed to make performances visible and
audible to thousands of people.
(Show an image of the Theatre of Epidaurus. Point out the semi-circular rows, the orchestra,
and the skene.)
🎭 Elizabethan Theatre
Now let’s move on to the Elizabethan theatre, which was popular in England during
Shakespeare’s time.
These theatres were often round or octagonal in shape. In the middle, there was an open
courtyard with a stage that extended into it. Around this courtyard were three levels of
covered galleries, where wealthier spectators sat. People who couldn’t afford seats stood in
the yard—they were called groundlings.
The stage had two levels: a main stage at ground level and an upper level, which was next
to the balcony area. This upper space was useful for certain scenes—like the famous
balcony scene in Romeo and Juliet.
These performances did not use a lot of scenery or props. Instead, language and movement
helped the audience imagine the setting.
(Show an image of the Globe Theatre or a drawing of the Swan Theatre. Indicate the stage,
courtyard, and balconies.)
Conclusion
To sum up:
The Greek amphitheatre was a large, open space designed to work with nature—especially
sound and vision.
The Elizabethan theatre brought the actors closer to the audience, using a raised stage and
multiple levels for dramatic effect.
Even though they were built in very different times and places, both theatre types were
designed to connect actors and audiences, and to make the performance clear, visible, and
meaningful.
In every period, the way the stage is designed affects how the story is told and felt.
C) Performance”
The Performance phase in drama focuses on the actor, who brings together the visions of
the author and director for the audience.
In the past, actors had full control over interpreting the text. But by the 20th century, actor
training became essential to ensure consistency in performances.
There are two main acting methods:
External (technical): Imitating emotions through technique, without actually feeling them.
Internal (realistic): The actor identifies emotionally with the role, drawing from personal
experience.
● Method Acting, developed by Stanislavsky and popularized by Lee Strasberg,
emphasizes showing over being. It influenced actors like Marlon Brando and James
Dean. Most acting schools today combine both approaches, depending on the
demands of the play.
Drama also relies heavily on interaction between characters, body language, and
the actor’s interpretation, which makes each performance unique and central to the
genre
