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📘 System Software – Module 2: Two-Pass Assembler (Full Explanation)
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🔶 What is an Assembler?
An assembler is a program that converts assembly language into machine code (binary
instructions).
Example:
LDA VALUE
gets converted to:
00 1020
Assembler does this using two types:
One-Pass Assembler
Two-Pass Assembler ← This is what we focus on in Module 2.
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🌀 Why Do We Need a Two-Pass Assembler?
Because of forward references.
Imagine you use a label like LOOP in your program before defining it:
JUMP LOOP
...
LOOP ADD A
In Pass 1, assembler doesn’t yet know where LOOP is.
So it first scans to build a symbol table, then uses that in Pass 2 to generate proper machine
code.
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✅ Pass 1 – Symbol Table Creation
In Pass 1, the assembler:
1. Reads each line of code.
2. Assigns addresses to labels.
3. Keeps track of current address using Location Counter (LOCCTR).
4. Builds the SYMTAB (Symbol Table):
Label → Address.
It does not generate machine code in this step.
🎯 Example:
COPY START 1000
FIRST STL RETADR
CLOOP JSUB RDREC
COPY → start address = 1000
FIRST → assigned 1003
CLOOP → assigned 1006
SYMTAB will store: | Label | Address | |--------|---------| | FIRST | 1003 | | CLOOP | 1006 |
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✅ Pass 2 – Object Code Generation
Now, assembler knows all label addresses.
In Pass 2, it:
1. Reads the code again.
2. Uses:
SYMTAB for label addresses
OPTAB for instruction opcodes (e.g., LDA = 00)
3. Generates machine code (object code).
4. Creates:
Object File (for machine to run)
Listing File (for programmers to check)
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🔧 Assembler Directives (Pseudo-Operations)
These are not instructions for the CPU but commands for the assembler.
Directive Meaning
STARTStart of the program
END End of the program
BYTE Define 1-byte constant (e.g., C'Z')
WORDDefine 3-byte integer
RESB Reserve bytes
RESWReserve words (3 bytes per word)
🧠 Example:
VAL1 WORD 5 ; Reserves 3 bytes and stores 5
TEMP RESW 1 ; Reserves 3 bytes (empty)
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📑 SYMTAB and OPTAB
These are lookup tables used by assembler:
🔹 SYMTAB (Symbol Table)
Created in Pass 1.
Stores label → address pairs.
🔹 OPTAB (Operation Table)
Built-in table with opcodes.
Stores mnemonic → opcode pairs.
Example: | Mnemonic | Opcode | |----------|--------| | LDA | 00 | | STA | 0C | | ADD |
18 |
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📄 Intermediate File & Listing File
Intermediate File: Output of Pass 1
Contains labels, opcodes, operands with addresses.
Listing File: Final human-readable version
Shows original code + generated object code
Used for debugging.
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💡 Handling Forward References
When a label like LOOP is used before it’s declared, assembler:
Keeps a placeholder in Pass 1.
Fills the correct address in Pass 2 using SYMTAB.
This is why a single pass is not enough.
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📦 Object Program Format
After Pass 2, assembler generates the object program, which has 3 main parts:
🟩 Header Record (H)
Program name, start address, program length
H COPY 001000 00107A
🟨 Text Record (T)
Actual object code instructions
T 001000 1E141033281030…
🟥 End Record (E)
Shows starting execution address
E 001000
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🧠 Final Summary:
Two-pass assembler is needed to handle forward references.
Pass 1 creates SYMTAB, tracks addresses.
Pass 2 uses SYMTAB + OPTAB to make object code.
Output: Object file with H, T, E records.
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🪩STORY MODE
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📘 System Software – Module 2: Assemblers Continued
🏰 Chapter 1: The Journey of the Two-Pass Assembler
In the land of Assembly, there was a wise program called the Two-Pass Assembler.
Why two passes? Because it was careful and clever.
Imagine you’re writing a treasure map (program), but some places (labels) don’t exist yet. The
assembler walks twice:
🔄 Pass 1 – The Map Maker
Walks line by line.
Finds all the labels and gives them addresses.
Builds the SYMTAB — a map of symbols.
> Example: If it sees LOOP:, it notes that LOOP is at address 1020.
🔄 Pass 2 – The Code Crafter
Comes back with the full map.
Converts each instruction into machine code using:
SYMTAB
OPTAB (like a spellbook of operation codes)
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🔧 Chapter 2: What Happens Inside Each Pass
🧭 Pass 1:
Initializes the Location Counter (LOCCTR).
Checks each line for:
Labels → Add to SYMTAB
Instructions → Increase LOCCTR
Directives like START, RESW, BYTE → handled specially
🔑 Pass 2:
Uses the SYMTAB and OPTAB.
Generates Object Code.
Also creates:
Listing File (for humans to read)
Object File (for machine to run)
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📚 Chapter 3: The Directives – Royal Commands
In Assembly, not every word is an instruction. Some are directives — they give orders to the
assembler, not to the machine.
Directive Meaning
STARTStart of program
END End of program
BYTE Store 1 byte of constant (e.g., char or hex)
WORDStore 3 bytes
RESB Reserve bytes
RESWReserve words (3 bytes each)
> Example:
NUM WORD 5 → Reserves 3 bytes and stores value 5
TEMP RESW 1 → Reserves 3 bytes of space, leaves it empty
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🧠 Chapter 4: What’s Inside SYMTAB and OPTAB
📒 SYMTAB (Symbol Table):
Stores labels with addresses.
Label Address
LOOP 1010
VALUE1020
📘 OPTAB (Operation Table):
Stores instructions and their codes.
Mnemonic Opcode
LDA 00
STA 0C
ADD 18
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🖨️ Chapter 5: Intermediate File and Listing File
After Pass 1, the assembler creates an Intermediate File:
It includes line number, label, opcode, operand.
Helps Pass 2 generate final object code.
The Listing File is like a nice printed report — for humans to check.
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⚔️ Chapter 6: Handling Forward References
What if the program uses a label before it’s defined?
J LOOP
...
LOOP ADD B
In Pass 1, assembler notes: “Hmm, I’ve seen LOOP but don’t know the address yet.”
It fills it in later, once LOOP is defined.
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📦 Chapter 7: Final Output – Object Program Format
The final machine code comes out in object program format:
Header Record (H): Program name and start address.
Text Record (T): Actual instructions.
End Record (E): Tells where to begin execution.
> Sample:
H COPY 001000 00107A
T 001000 1E 141033 281030 …
E 001000
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🎓 Moral of the Story
The Two-Pass Assembler is not just a translator — it's a detective, mapmaker, and magician all
in one.
It handles labels, errors, addresses, and code — making sure the final object file is perfect for
the machine.
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