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A Review on Recycled Use of Solid Wastes in Building Materials

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 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Vol:9, No:12, 2015

A Review on Recycled Use of Solid Wastes in

Building Materials
Oriyomi M. Okeyinka, David A. Oloke, Jamal M. Khatib

 expected to increase to 2.2 billion tones by the year 2025 [3].

Abstract—Large quantities of solid wastes being generated Also, waste generation rate is expected to double over the next
worldwide from sources such as household, domestic, industrial, twenty years in lower income countries.
commercial and construction demolition activities, leads to One of the global environmental impacts of solid waste is
environmental concerns. Utilization of these wastes in making
the emission of methane which is regarded as a powerful
building construction materials can reduce the magnitude of the
associated problems. When these waste products are used in place of greenhouse gas GHG, whose impact can be felt within a short
other conventional materials, natural resources and energy are period of time. Flooding, air pollution and other public health
impact are also associated with uncollected solid waste.
Open Science Index, Civil and Environmental Engineering Vol:9, No:12, 2015 publications.waset.org/10003128/pdf

preserved and expensive and/or potentially harmful waste disposal is

avoided.
Recycling which is regarded as the third most preferred waste TABLE I
disposal option, with its numerous environmental benefits, stand as a CURRENT ESTIMATES ON GLOBAL TYPE OF WASTE COMPOSITION BY
viable option to offset the environmental impact associated with the COUNTRY INCOME LEVEL [3]
construction industry. Organic Paper Plastic Glass Metal Other
Income level
This paper reviews the results of laboratory tests and important (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
research findings, and the potential of using these wastes in building Low income 64 5 8 3 3 17
construction materials with focus on sustainable development. Lower middle income 59 9 12 3 2 15
Research gaps, which includes; the need to develop standard mix Upper middle Income 54 14 11 5 3 15
design for solid waste based building materials; the need to develop High income 28 31 11 7 6 18
energy efficient method of processing solid waste use in concrete; the
need to study the actual behavior or performance of such building TABLE II
materials in practical application and the limited real life application FUTURE ESTIMATES ON GLOBAL TYPE OF WASTE COMPOSITION BY COUNTRY
of such building materials have also been identified. INCOME LEVEL (PROJECTION FOR 2025) [3]
A research is being proposed to develop an environmentally Organic Paper Plastic Glass Metal Other
Income level
friendly, lightweight building block from recycled waste paper, (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
without the use of cement, and with properties suitable for use as Low income 62 6 9 3 3 17
walling unit. This proposed research intends to incorporate, Lower middle income 55 10 13 4 3 15
laboratory experimentation and modeling to address the identified Upper middle income 50 15 12 4 4 15
research gaps. High income 28 30 11 7 6 18

Keywords—Recycling, solid waste, construction, building TABLE III

materials. GLOBAL SOLID WASTE COMPOSITION [3]
Percentage
Wastes
I. INTRODUCTION (%)

S
Organic 46
OLID wastes such as paper, glass, metal, textile and
Paper 17
plastic constitute a major part of the municipal solid
Plastic 10
wastes that originate from household, schools, hospitals and Glass 5
business activities. Construction and demolition wastes such Metal 4
as waste concrete and wood waste are other types of waste Other 18
common in the environment nowadays [1] .
Large amount of these wastes are generated around the Tables I and II indicate the global current and future
globe from various human activities, in both developed and estimate of waste composition based on country income level
developing countries due to population growth, rise in living while Table III presents the global solid waste composition
standard and urbanization [2]. [3]. Presently, in most low and low middle income countries,
According to the world bank statistics on solid waste these wastes are either burnt or land filled. This is an approach
management, the world cities is currently generating about which could cause various environmental problems like air
1.3billion tones of solid waste per year and this volume is pollution, emission of greenhouse gases and occupation of
useful land. The increasing charges of landfill are further
O. M. Okeyinka, D. A. Oloke and J. M. Khatib are with Faculty of aggravating the problem. Moreover, these methods of disposal
Science and Engineering, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, are certainly wastage of a primary resource. In addition, the
University of Wolverhampton, City Campus, Wolverhampton, West Midlands biodegradation of these wastes in landfills, emits methane, a
WV1 1SB, United Kingdom (e-mail: [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected]). greenhouse gas which has 72 times heating effect relative to

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that of CO2 [4], besides, composting and burning of certain compression and flexion, compared to conventional Portland
wastes is prohibited by legislation [5]. cement concrete [13], [14], it also has the advantage of
The need for alternative disposal of these waste is therefore developing over 80% of its ultimate mechanical strength
paramount, to achieve environmental sustainability. The within 1 day but with low resistance to temperature [11], [14],
building construction industry is a major sector when it comes [15].
to environmental sustainability due to its high consumption of Other authors have also used PET waste mixed with high
material, the possible utilization of solid waste in this sector density polyethylene waste (HDPE) as aggregates, as a partial
stands to be a viable of option for it disposal. substitute for between 5–20% of the total volume of sand in
order to draw comparisons with glass fibres generally used as
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTE structural reinforcement [14], [16]. The study revealed that a
Solid waste is any unwanted or discarded material that is volumic substitution exceeding 15% decreases the mechanical
not a liquid or a gas. Wastes such as paper, glass, bottles, cans, properties of the new composites with respect to the reference
metals, certain plastics, fabrics, clothes, and wood can be mortar that contains no waste.
classified under recyclable materials, Reference [17] conducted a research with the objective of
The physical and chemical properties of the solid wastes investigating the mechanical properties which includes; the
vary considerably with their source and storage condition as compressive strength, the splitting tensile strength, and the
Open Science Index, Civil and Environmental Engineering Vol:9, No:12, 2015 publications.waset.org/10003128/pdf

well as time. The main sources of solid wastes are household, flexural strength of polymer concrete using an unsaturated
industrial, domestic, commercial, construction demolition and polyester resin based on recycled PET. The relationships
furniture industry wastes. between the mechanical properties was analyzed, it was
The productive use of waste material represents a means of reported, that, the polymer concrete using resin based on
reducing some of the problems associated with solid waste recycled PET can achieve compressive strength of 73.7 MPa,
management; it minimizes the use of natural resources and in flexural strength of 22.4 MPa, splitting tensile strength of 7.85
some cases results in the production of environmentally MPa, and elastic modulus of 27.9 GPa, at 7 days, which means
friendly products. The need for safe and economic disposal of that some relationships exist between the compressive strength
waste material is part of the reasons for the continuous of polymer concrete and other properties such as, elastic
advancement of research into innovative use of waste modulus, flexural strength, and splitting tensile strength.
materials. Clean environment, reduced use of natural In a study conducted by [14], to investigate an innovative
resources, and dumping spaces are being achieved through the use of consumed plastic bottle waste as sand-substitution
use of recycled waste materials such as recycled aggregates, aggregate within composite materials for building application,
recycled glass, recycled paper, recycled plastic, recycled in which, the bulk density and mechanical characteristics of
metal, and recycled textile in building materials. the composites produced were evaluated. The use of scanning
electron microscopy technique to study the relationship
A. Recycled Plastics in Building Materials between mechanical properties and composite microstructure
Plastics have become an inseparable and integral part of revealed that, substituting sand at a level below 50% by
human daily activities, the steady growth in its consumption volume with granulated PET, whose upper granular limit
may be attributed to its low density, strength, user friendly equals 5 mm, affects neither the compressive strength nor the
designs, fabrication capabilities, long life, lightweight, and flexural strength of composites.
low cost characteristics The study demonstrated that plastic bottles shredded into
Large quantities of varieties of plastics such as high density small PET particles may be used successfully as sand-
polyethylene from milk bottles, polyethylene terephthalate substitution aggregates in cementitious concrete composites,
(PET) from beverage bottles, or even unsegregated plastic with conclusion that, the composites appears to offer an
mixture are available in municipal solid waste stream. The attractive low-cost material with consistent properties which
world’s annual consumption of plastic materials increased could resolve some of the solid waste problems created by
from around 5 million tons in the 1950s to nearly 100 million plastics production and in saving energy.
tons in 2001 [6]. Building materials can be an alternative The use of plastic as an ingredient for the production of
means of using recycled waste plastics resulting from building material from the combination of plastic and wood
packaging. was reported in a study by [18], an example of such is known
Previous studies by [7]-[12] showed that it is indeed as thermoformable wood plastic fibre composite which are
possible to use plastic waste in concretes or mortars. In classified into processed melt blending and non-woven mat
particular, a research into the use of recycled polyethylene formulation, they result from the combination of powdered or
terephthalate (PET), a packing material byproduct, as binder pelletized thermoplastic such as polypropylene or
in the production of high-performance composite known as polyethylene with wood flour or cellulose fibre. The primary
polymer concrete was reported. The plastic was transformed application of this thermoformed composites, both melt and
by means of a transesterification reaction, in the presence of blended and air laid type, is for interior door panels and trunk
glycols and dibasic acid, into unsaturated polyester resin. The liners in automobiles [18].
resin was then mixed with sand and gravel. The polymer The use of plastic waste in granular form [19], fibrous form
concrete obtained was reported to exhibit high resistant in both [20], [15], and powdery form [21], for purposes such as sand

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and natural aggregate replacement, reinforcement and in increased by 33%. Though, further investigation is needed
combination with other materials were investigated. These regarding the use of textile waste, the work developed so far
studies reported improved compressive and flexural strength, are based essentially on the use of textile waste in the
however, more research is required in this direction to production of bricks and lightweight materials [30]-[33], more
ascertain the optimum level of substitution. Also, low bond particularly using cotton combined with other materials, such
characteristics of plastic wastes has been identified as a major as limestone powder, fly ash, barite, and paper, in which
hindrance to use them in concrete, given its smooth surface, properties like, Sound insulation, thermal conductivity,
there is therefore need to identify a surface roughening bending strength and radioactivity were studied showed that;
treatment for better bond properties. the produced brick possess good thermal stability [33],
increased compressive strength [32], high energy-absorbing
B. Recycled Textile in Building Materials
capacity and up to 30 minutes fire resistance [30]. It was
There have been increasing environmental concern proved that light-weight construction materials produced with
regarding the textile industry waste and those generated as cotton waste, fly ash and epoxy resin could be used for getting
postconsumer textile waste, due to the enormous amount not better thermal and sound insulation results even though the
being used. In European Union (EU) alone, around 5.8 million radioactive permeability of samples containing barite was low
tonnes of post-consumer textiles are discarded per year, only [32]. For instance, in the production of Waste Crete Bricks
Open Science Index, Civil and Environmental Engineering Vol:9, No:12, 2015 publications.waset.org/10003128/pdf

1.5 million tones (i.e. 25%) go into recycling by charities and with varying content of cotton waste (1–5 wt.%), recycle
industrial enterprises. The remaining 4.3 million tonnes goes paper mills waste (89–85 wt.%) and fixed content of Portland
to landfill or to municipal waste incinerators, thereby making cement (10 wt.%) subjected to testing in accordance with IS
textile wastes from the textile industry another significant 3495 (Part 1–3): 1992 standards. The findings indicated a
source of waste [22]. In 2009, 293,000 tonnes of textile waste thermally stable bricks up to a temperature of 280 °C with
was produced, in Portugal, and the main textile waste porous and fibrous nature as shown by SEM monographs but
generated in the country comes from wool, cotton and with conclusions that the bricks meets IS 3495 (Part 1–3):
synthetic and artificial fibers. 1992 requirement [33].
Textile waste integrates the group of reusable materials that Research work has also been developed to study the use of
can be included in the building construction and which have woven fabric waste (WFW) and a waste of this residue, named
different possibilities of application. These textile wastes may woven fabric sub-waste (WFS), as an alternative solution to
have origin in the textile industry or may simply result from commercial insulation materials, such as extruded polystyrene
clothes that are no longer used. The study of the performance (XPS) or expanded polystyrene (EPS) products. Reference
of these types of wastes in the construction is partly based on [22] conducted experimental work to examine the influence of
the behavior of the tissues when they are used as clothing. The introducing each one of these textile wastes in the thermal
primary function of clothing is to protect the human body performance of an external double wall. The heat transmission
from cold and heat, in order to keep thermal comfort coefficient (U) of the double wall with the air box filled with
conditions. This can be acquired ensuring an appropriate heat these types of waste was determined. These results were used
transfer between the human body and the outside environment. to calculate the value of thermal conductivity of WFW and
In this regard, studies to analyze the phenomena of heat WFS. The result obtained showed that the application of the
transfer through the textile fabrics showed that their thermal WFW and WFS in the external double wall increases its
insulation properties are highly related to the properties and thermal behavior in 56% and 30%, respectively. The thermal
configuration of their components, namely to the capillary conductivity value of the WFW is similar to the values obtain
structure, surface characteristics of yarns and air volume for expanded polystyrene (EPS), extruded polystyrene (XPS)
distribution in the fabrics [22]-[25]. Therefore, the knowledge and mineral wool (MW). The value of this parameter for the
of thermal, mechanical and physical performance of various WFS is approximately equal to the values for granules of clay,
types of textile fabrics and their residues is essential to vermiculite or expanded perlite. It was concluded that
optimize its use as a raw material in the building construction. applying these wastes as a possible thermal insulation material
The investigation of different textiles fibers as a material to seems to be an adequate solution. Environmental, sustainable
produce lightweight concrete, as reinforcement of cement and economic advantages may result from this practice.
mortars elements [26], reinforcement in concrete [27], [28],
or as fibrous insulation materials [29] reported an improved C. Recycled Metal in Building Materials
mechanical behavior of the concrete, a mortar with physical, Metal recycling is the process of reusing old metal material,
mechanical and durability properties similar to glass or mainly aluminum and steel, to make new products. Recycling
polypropylene [26], there are minor changes in the water old metal products uses 95% less energy than manufacturing it
vapour permeability of the loose-fill cellulose specimens [29]. from new materials [34]. Million tons of energy is required in
Another research work with a focus on analyzing the potential the chemical reaction process required to produce aluminum
application of textile sub-waste as an alternative building and steel products, meanwhile, for the recycling of metal
thermal insulation material for double external walls, products, only 4% of this total energy is utilized which serves
concluded that by using the textile sub-waste, a double as means of conserving natural resources and reducing
external wall’s thermal insulation performance may be greenhouse gas emissions.

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Ferrous metal is regarded as the most profitable and concrete.

recyclable material with highly developed market and demand Glass windows units from construction demolition can be
all over the world and therefore, the applications of these reused directly depending on how carefully they are handled,
materials had been well accepted on site. stored, transported and contaminated [35].
Steel can be melted to produce new one ,apart from it direct Recycled glass can be used for properties enhancement in
reuse, unlike few other waste materials, scrap steel allows the manufacture of glass fibre, which is used in thermal and
repeated recycling, which is one of the factors that enables its acoustic insulations, which can be mixed with strengthen
100% recyclability, Steel organization reports that roughly cement, gypsum or resin products [35]. In Japan practices,
100% steel reinforcement is made from recycled scrap and recycled glass is adopted as isolation material, including glass
25% steel sections are made from recycled scrap [35]. wool mat; pipe cover and thermal insulation board with facing
Waste steel slag which is a by-product produced during the for plant; ceiling board and acoustical insulation board for
conversion of iron ore or scrap iron to steel is another waste industrial and commercial building
material that has potential for use in construction, it A clean dry glass powder is useful as a substitute for
mineralogy composition changes with its chemical Portland cement in concrete. The finely ground glass having a
components, solid compound of CaO–FeO–MnO–MgO, and particle size finer than 38 µm contain a high amount of
free CaO are the common minerals in steel slag [2]. amorphous silica, which exhibits a pozzolanic behavior [42].
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In India, the blast furnace slag, categorized as group I waste Hence, the use of ground glass in concrete can be
and has been used in the manufacture of blended cement to advantageous with respect to hardened properties and
improve its soundness, strength, morphology, and abrasion durability.
resistance. The group II material which includes ferro-alloy In the United Kingdom practices, recycled glass is used as a
industrial waste has not been used extensively, but it has great fine material for cement replacement called “ConGlassCrete”,
potential for recycling. These solid wastes have been used in which is used for improving the strength of concrete, aside
production of Portland blast furnace slag cement, super this, the product obtained from the 100% utilization of
sulphate cement, and also as aggregates in high strength recycled glass in the United States for the production of tiles,
concrete and light weight concrete [36]. The group III exhibited an attractive reflective appearance on the surface
materials include the tailings of iron, zinc, copper and gold ore after polishing.
beneficiation and have been used as fine aggregate or concrete The possibility of producing paving blocks having various
filler material in the construction industries [37]. levels of fine or coarse waste glass in place of fine aggregate
A study by [38] revealed, that reactivity of steel slag is due was also investigated by [43]. It was found that, a 20%
to the free CaO content ,though a previous study reported that replacement by weight of fine aggregate with fine glass has a
the high free CaO content in steel slag produces volume potential to produce good quality paving blocks.
expansion problems [39]. Paving blocks are produced from recycled glass aggregate
The use of waste steel slag to produce construction by crushing in USA. Hong Kong is also developing this
materials such as cementitious pastes and bricks had been recycling technology, to produce concrete block with
investigated. Reference [40] used steel slag to produce properties such as; an attractive reflective appearance on the
combined-alkali slag paste materials. Reference [41] also surface after polishing, reduce water absorption and good
reported that the incorporation of steel slag enhances brick compressive strength. However, the drawback of instability,
production, in the sense that, it reduces the firing temperature sharpness of aggregate and alkali-silica reaction expansion
but with a decrease in the compressive strength and firing still requires attention. The adoption of pulverized fly ash for
shrinkage. It was concluded that these bricks can be used as depressant in alkali-silica reaction and reduction of impurities
third class bricks in construction industry; therefore, more are essential in optimizing the quality of paving block
investigation is needed to improve the aforementioned containing recycled glass aggregate. Another option is to crush
characteristics and grade waste glass and use it as a replacement for fine
aggregate in a concrete mix though with a caution of ensuring
D.Recycled Glass in Building Materials
that the glass used be silica-free in order to avoid alkali-silica
Waste glass constitutes a problem for solid waste disposal reaction (ASR) phenomenon in the final composite. If this
in many municipalities and the practice of landfilling it, does basic criterion is met, past studies indicate that recycled waste
not provide an environmental friendly disposal, due to its non- glass is an acceptable material to be used in concrete. There
biodegradability. Consequently, there is a strong need to tends to be a slight decrease in compressive strength as the
utilize/recycle waste glasses. fraction of recycled glass is increased in a mix, and other
In 1997, the glass industry recycled 425,000 tonnes of glass properties such as air content and mix are dependent on the
in the United Kingdom [35]. However, the recycling rate is shape of the individual grains of the crushed glass [44]-[46].
relatively low in Hong Kong (1%) in comparison with other However, the testing of mortar bar demonstrated that finely
countries (the rates in USA, Japan and Germany are 20, 78 ground glass helps to reduce the expansion due to alkali-silica
and 85%, respectively).Glass can be reused in the construction reaction by up to 50% [42].
industry for a number of applications such as: window, tiles, Reference [47] reported a significant improvement in the
glass fibre, filler materials, paving blocks and aggregate in compressive strength of fired clay brick due to the addition of

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waste glass, stating that, the amorphous nature of waste glass materials [66]. Also, an improvements in restrained shrinkage
particles enhances the sintering action, which leads to crack control and impact resistance were particularly
achieving a better strength in bricks and that the waste glass significant and comparable to those of virgin fibers when
can be mixed with clay in different proportions to prepare high waste paper were used as discrete reinforcement systems in
quality bricks. Similarly, [48] reported that clay bricks with concrete [67].
suitable physical and mechanical properties can be obtained at Regarding its use in the production of (papercrete) building
a proper firing temperature by using waste glass with content block, the compressive strength in the range of 0.96-1.1MPa
in the range of 15 to 30% by weight of clay. [57], 1.7MPa [68], and 1.12 -2.36MPa [69] were reported. A
In a recent research by [49], the strength and transport very low tensile strength ranging between 0.195 and
properties of clay bricks were found to improve as a result of 0.052MPa was reported by [70]. However a much lower
the improvement of pore structure when 15% (by weight of thermal conductivity than concrete was reported showing that
clay) of both fine and coarse waste glasses was added. its insulation value is much higher. This is because the R-
value of papercrete is in between 2.0 – 3.0 per inch (0.078-
E. Recycled Paper in Building Materials
0.12 per mm) with thickness in walls 12-16 inches (304.8-
Paper can be described as a sheet of cellulose fibre mostly 406.4mm) in one or two story house [57]. Similarly, [70]
obtained from wood, rags or grass fibre and sometimes other reported the thermal conductivity of papercrete to be 0.10 W/
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plants such as cotton, rice and papyrus for production of (m•K) and that of concrete was between 1.25 and 1.75 W/
special papers. Ever since its invention, it has formed an (m•K) [70].
important part of human day to day activities, with uses in Reference [57] stated that, a more useful measure of
many applications due to its versatile properties, the most papercrete's properties is its stiffness i.e., the extent to which it
common of such uses being writing and printing upon, other compresses under load. Its stiffness is considerably less than
are but not limited to packaging material, cleaning products, that of concrete, but sufficient for the support of roof loads in
industrial and construction processes. some low-height buildings. Varying the mix of papercrete,
The need to recycle paper is paramount upon the fact that, admixtures and curing procedures results in compromises in
the more it is being utilized for several applications, the more its properties. For instance, adding more sand or glass to the
the amount of waste paper generated and major percentage of mix results in a denser, stronger, more flame retardant
these, finds their way to the municipal solid waste stream, material, but adds weight and reduces R-value [57]. Heavy
according to the US environmental protection agency(US mixes with added sand, glass, etc. increase mass and strength
EPA), paper and paper board products make up the largest to a point, but reduce workability. In other words, a light mix
portion of the municipal solid waste stream in the United with just Portland cement is easier to cut with a chain saw and
States, occupying 40% of the landfill composition in 2005 drive rebar through than a mix with larger amounts of sand,
[50], [51] and 27.4% of the total MSW before recycling in clay, etc. Adding more than the minimum amount of Portland
2012 [1]. Similarly, paper and cardboard waste form largest cement to the mix increases strength and resistance to
fraction of the municipal waste stream in Europe, accounting abrasion, but also reduces flexibility somewhat, adds weight
for 35% [52]. Waste paper therefore represents a considerable and may reduce R-value. Therefore, finding the best mix for
environmental and social problem, whose recycling can the application is important.
reduce the amount of paper that find its way to waste disposal, Reference [71] reported the results of an investigation on
and can be used for fuel, building insulation, building the utilization of wastepaper as additional materials in
materials, potting mixture, insulation in cars and shoes aside it concrete mixes to be used for housing projects, in which. Four
uses for paper and card production. concrete mixes containing of the waste, which are control mix,
Several research had been carried out to investigate the use 5%, 10%, 15% as an additional materials to concrete were
of waste paper in the production of building materials such as, prepared with ratios of 1:2:3 by weight of cement, sand, and
fibre reinforced cement composite [53], [54], wall panel [55], aggregate respectively with a 20mm maximum size of
[56], building block [57], adobe [57], [58], brick [59], thin aggregate. The test results revealed that as the content of the
cement sheet [60], low density board [61], [62], Composite paper increased the water to cement ratio for the mix was also
panel [63]. increased. With the addition of 25% wastepaper in proportion
Its suitability for use as reinforced fibre cement composite, to the amount of cement, the mechanical strength decreases
low density board, and composite panel has been established significantly. Overall, a high correlation was observed
in previous studies, though with recommendation for more between density and strength of concrete containing paper.
research to improve on the problem of high moisture
absorption of fibre and composite, low compatibility of fibre F. Recycled Aggregate in Building Materials
with cement and the unsatisfactory physical and mechanical Recycled aggregate is a product obtain from the recycling
properties of the composite when the waste paper fibre of construction and demolition waste concrete, the need to
proportion is increased [64], [65]. find an alternative disposal method for this kind of waste
Waste paper can be used in concrete as a lightweight instead of landfilling ,coupled with the scarcity of virgin
aggregate capable of enhancing the weight-to-strength ratio, aggregate are the factors that encourage it utilization in
insulation properties, and toughness characteristics of concrete building materials such as concrete, and brick.

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Several researches had been carried out to investigate the aggregates as the replacement of natural aggregates at the
properties of concrete containing recycled aggregates of level of up to 100%, concrete paving blocks with a 28-day
various types and quantities. Chemical stability [43], physical compressive strength of not less than 49 MPa can be produced
durability [72], workability [73], strength [74], permeability without the incorporation of fly ash, while paving blocks for
and shrinkage resistance [75] are some of the properties that footway uses with a lower compressive strength of 30 MPa
have been investigated. Most of these studies came up with the and masonry bricks can be produced with the incorporation of
general conclusion that, concrete containing recycled coarse fly ash.
aggregate which are properly cleaned, and in quantities not While recycled aggregates have been used in large amounts
more than 50% replacement of virgin aggregate would have in non-structural concretes for building structures, its use in
adequate durability, workability, and strength when compared structural concrete is limited to low level of replacement of the
with concrete containing 100% virgin aggregate [74], [76]. total weight of coarse aggregate. Few cases of its use in
Although, concrete containing recycled aggregate is expected structural concrete have been reported, An example is a
to display slightly more shrinkage than that containing virgin viaduct and a marine lock project in the Netherlands in 1988,
aggregate [75]. The compressive and splitting tensile strengths and an office building in the UK in 1999 [81]. In the first case,
of concrete made with recycled coarse aggregate depend on a total of 11 000 m3 of concrete in which 20% of the coarse
the mix proportions [74]. Permeability of concrete containing aggregates were replaced by recycled aggregates was used in
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recycled aggregate at w/c ratios same as that of concrete all parts of the structures. Another reported case involved the
containing only virgin aggregate is also expected to increase use of 4000 m3 of ready mixed concrete, which was prepared
[77]. With regards to chemical stability, it is important that with recycled aggregates obtained from crushed concrete
waste aggregates being used do not contain reactive silica in railway sleepers to replace 40% of the coarse [81].
order to avoid alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in the final product.
G. Recycled Wood in Building Materials
Reference [78] investigated the flexural behavior of plain
concrete containing crushed old concrete as replacement for Wood waste may be sawdust from the sawing of wood or
natural coarse aggregate. Plain concrete beams made with 0%, any other wood wastes. It is used in large quantities in many
50%, and 100% recycled coarse aggregate were tested as different sectors and is a part of human everyday lives; large
simple beams with third point loading. When compared with volumes of sawdust and other recovered wood have
the ACI standard, the obtained moduli of rupture values were accumulated in many places over the years. Sawdust can be
within the acceptable levels. Furthermore, statistical analyses described as loose particles or wood chippings obtained as by-
of permeability tests indicated that the concrete was not products from sawing of timber into standard useable sizes
greatly affected by the use of the recycled aggregates in the [82].
mix. Other wood wastes may include, solid or chipped wood in
The utilization of recycled concrete aggregate in different its natural stage without chemical contamination, glued coated
construction applications other than in production of new lacquered wood without halogenic materials as timber
concrete have been considered by few studies, one of such preservative, wood with halogenic materials (i.e. PVC) but no
application is the use of recycled concrete aggregate in the timber preservatives and wood with timber preservatives [83].
production of sand lime brick in Kuwait, which was About 30million tonnes of recovered wood are generated in
considered by [79], [80]. The study evaluated the specific Europe annually [84].
gravity, compressive strength, and absorption characteristics Timber waste from C&D works is produced in large
of the brick. It was reported, that the brick made from recycled quantity all over the world. It is estimated that more than 2.5
concrete aggregate has properties that are within the million tonnes of timber wastes are generated in the United
specifications requirements. Kingdom each year [35].
In Hong Kong, [73] considered the use of recycled The potentials of wood waste being recycled and utilized or
aggregate from construction and demolition waste to produce reuse easily and directly in other construction projects after
concrete bricks and paving blocks, Laboratory trials were cleaning, de-nailing and sizing have been considered in some
conducted to investigate the possibility of using recycled studies, Undamaged wood can be reused as plank, beam, door,
aggregates from different sources in Hong Kong, as the floorboard, rafter, panel, balcony parapet and pile [85]. A new
replacement of both coarse and fine natural aggregates in technology in turning timber waste into furniture, shoring
molded bricks and blocks. The test results based on a series of wooden pile for relocated pine trees, bench and timber stair
tests carried out to determine the properties of the bricks and was developed in Japan in 2004. A special lightweight
blocks prepared with and without recycled aggregates, showed concrete can be produced from aggregate made from recycled
that the replacement of coarse and fine natural aggregates by small wood chunk [86].
recycled aggregates at the levels of 25 and 50% had little Reference [82] considered the development of a new
effect on the compressive strength of the brick and block building material from wood. This new building material
specimens, but higher levels of replacement reduced the named as Wood-Crete was developed using sawdust, waste
compressive strength. However, the transverse strength of the paper and tradical lime. The results of the study showed that
specimens increased as the percentage of replacement lightweight sustainable blocks can be produced with good
increased. The author concluded that using recycled insulating and other relevant properties for building

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construction with density ranging from 356 to 713 kg/m3 and The use of blast furnace slag was found to improve
compressive strength from 0.06 to 0.80 MPa. The properties soundness, strength morphology and abrasion resistance of
were closely related to the composition of Wood-Crete with an blended cement [36]. Waste steel slag incorporation resulted
addition of waste paper being a dominant influence on both in the production of brick with low firing temperature suitable
strength and thermal conductivity, reflecting its effect on the for use as third class brick, though with decreased
structure of composite and contribution of self-strength of compressive strength and firing shrinkage [41].
paper fibres. The combined effect of sawdust and waste paper Aside the reuse of glass for windows and tiles [86] finely
and tradical lime had a direct effect on the strength properties ground glass exhibit pozzolanic behavior which made it
of Wood-Crete. Of significant importance was the suitable for substituting Portland cement, particularly, glass
contribution of self-strength of Wood-Crete due to the powder with particles size finer than 38µm [42], 20%
influence of the size of sawdust particles used. The developed replacement by weight of fine aggregate with fine glass has
Wood-Crete was able to withstand considerable amount of potential to produce good quality paving block [43]. It uses in
impact load and considered like hempcrete most suitable for real practice for the production of ceiling and acoustic
wall paneling or other non- and semi-structural applications insulation board, conglasscrete and tiles in Japan, United
with good thermal insulating properties. Kingdom and United States respectively were also reported
In a previous investigation, [87] used wood particles from [86]. Also, 15 to 30% waste glass incorporation in clay
Open Science Index, Civil and Environmental Engineering Vol:9, No:12, 2015 publications.waset.org/10003128/pdf

construction waste in Japan for making wood-chip concrete. produces bricks with suitable physical and mechanical
They made concrete with a density range of 920–1250 kg/m3. properties at proper firing temperature [47], [48].
They found the flexural strength of the product in the range of The suitability of wastepaper for use as constituent of
4–7 MPa and compressive strength 5–8 MPa. The ratio building materials such as fibre reinforced cement composite
between flexural strength and compressive strength was 0.5– [53], wall panel [55], building block [57], brick [59], thin
0.9, greater than that for normal concrete. This indicates the cement sheet [60] and, low density board [61] were reported.
reinforcing effect of wood particles. They further reduced the Though more investigation is required to improve on the high
density to about 780 kg/m3 by adding synthetic lightweight moisture absorption of fibre and composite, low compatibility
aggregates. This resulted in comparatively lower bending and of fibre with cement
compressive strength values at 2.05 and 2.2 MPa, respectively. Concrete containing recycled aggregates in quantities not
more than 50% replacement of virgin aggregates would have
III. DISCUSSIONS adequate durability, workability and strength when compared
Based on the investigations into the use of solid wastes with concrete containing 100% virgin aggregate [74], [76].
reviewed, various research studies had been conducted on the Mix proportion influence the compressive and splitting tensile
utilization of solid wastes in the production of building strengths [74].
materials. Their uses for purposes such as fine aggregate, Apart from the reuse of undamaged waste wood in
coarse aggregate, cement replacement, binder, and construction, a special lightweight concrete can be produced
reinforcement in the production of several building (Table IV) from aggregate made from recycled small wood chunk. The
has been established. Most of these researches focused on the possibility of producing lightweight block with properties such
influence of solid wastes on the physical and mechanical as; density ranging between 356-713kg/m3, compressive
properties of building products concerned. Some also strength from 0.06-0.8MPa and good insulating properties
attempted to study the durability performance of such products from combination of sawdust, paper and lime was reported by
containing solid wastes. [88]. The reinforcing effect of wood particles was indicated
The studies reported that, the use of plastic wastes in the through the production of wood – chip- concrete in Japan,
fibre, granular and powdery form, have no significant side with density range 920-1250Kg/m3, flexural strength 4-7Mpa,
effect on the properties of the concrete produced [14], [19], and compressive Strength 5-8Mpa [87]. However, certain
but in some cases brought about improvement in compressive issues such as; the problem of low fire resistance and low
[21] and flexural strength [15], [20] higher strength to weight bond characteristics of plastic waste used as fibre in concrete
ratio, workability, thermal, insulation and reduction in self- which usually occurs due to the smooth surface of plastic;
weight. high volume expansion problem in steel slag concrete
Utilization of textile fibre with adequate consideration of its resulting from high free CaO content in steel slag; decreased
thermal, mechanical and physical properties in the correct compressive strength and firing shrinkage of bricks containing
proportion produces concrete with improved mechanical waste steel slag. Alkali silica reaction (ASR) phenomenon in
behavior, mortar with improved physical, mechanical and concrete containing glass with high amount of silica; and high
durability properties similar to glass or polypropylene [26]. A moisture absorption of building materials containing waste
significant increase in the thermal insulation of double wall paper still requires more investigations.
was observed [22] and combination of cotton with materials To address the issues regarding waste paper use in concrete,
such as paper, limestone powder, barite and fly ash produced a research is being proposed to investigate the applicability of
brick with good thermal stability [33], increased compressive using recycled waste paper to produce an environmentally
strength [32] high energy absorbing capacity and 30min fire friendly lightweight, non-load bearing building block, with
resistance [30]. property suitable for use as walling unit.

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TABLE IV incorporating laboratory experimentation, statistical analysis

SUMMARY OF RECYCLED USE OF SOLID WASTE IN BUILDING MATERIALS
and modeling of such construction material to validate the
Solid Recycling
waste Technology
Recycled Use in building materials outcome of experimentation in a real life condition. The
Plastic Concrete/Mortar, resin binder (for statistical analysis of the result will also enable the
Transesterification
Crushed into
polymer concrete). understanding of the confidence level of the results, thereby
Fine aggregate,
Aggregate
Thermoformable (wood plastic fibre)
proofing it beyond reasonable doubt. Therefore, to address the
Grind to powder research gaps identified in this review, an investigation of the
composite
Textile Lightweight concrete, Cement mortar applicability of recycled waste for the production of
Cut Into Fibre elements, Insulation materials, reinforced
lightweight building material, with focus on sustainability has
concrete, Bricks
Metal Recycled steel, blended cement, been proposed. This proposed research, intends to produce an
Melt Aggregate in high strength concrete and environmentally friendly lightweight building block from
Reuse lightweight concrete, cementitious paste, recycled waste paper without the use of cement, with
bricks
Reuse properties suitable for use as non-load bearing walling unit.
Recycled window unit, cement
Glass Crushed into
replacement, filling material, recycled
Laboratory experimentation will be carried out to develop
Aggregate adequate mixture proportioning process with which the
aggregate, tile, paving block, brick
Grind to powder
Paper Fibre reinforced cement composite, wall standard mix design will be formulated, to aid the
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Pulp (blended)
panel, building block, brick, thin cement acceptability of this material to building regulating body and
Fibre (Shredded)
sheet, low density board, composite panel. the general public, the technology available for producing and
Wood Reuse
Crushed into
Plank, beam, door, floor boards, rafter etc. for ascertaining the quality of concrete/sandcrete block will be
Lightweight aggregate employed as much as possible. Energy efficient equipment to
Aggregate
Woodcrete (sawdust+ waste paper+ Lime)
Combined with
Wood chip concrete process the material both at preparation and experimentation
other materials
Concrete Crushed into
stage will be designed and fabricated. Numerical modeling
Recycled aggregate, e.g. Coarse or Fine will be used to validate the outcome of laboratory
Aggregate
aggregate, Concrete bricks, Paving blocks
experimentation, in order to understand the actual behavior of
the material in practical application.
Speaking of environmental friendliness, it incorporate ; less The significance of this proposed investigation can be
pollution, less use of natural resources, less energy utilization, justified based on the fact that, its success is expected to
affordability, less emission of greenhouse gases, all this are contribute to the use of recycled waste in concrete, which may
the focus of this proposed research to promote sustainability in result in reduction in environmental pollution, conservation of
the construction industry. valuable land fill spaces, conservation of natural resources and
energy, minimized use of Portland cement as well as reduction
IV. CONCLUSIONS in construction cost
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