Guidelines on Using

Case Studies as an Evaluation

Method
About Search for Common Ground
Search for Common Ground is a non-governmental organization working to
transform how societies deal with conflict. With over 30 years of experience in
peacebuilding across 43 offices worldwide, Search strives to build sustainable
peace for generations to come by working with all sides of a conflict, providing
the tools needed to work together and find constructive solutions.

Search designs and implements multifaceted, culturally appropriate and con-

flict-sensitive programs using a diverse range of approaches, including media
and training, to promote dialogue, increase knowledge and determine a
positive shift in behaviors.

[Link]

Levante International Development

Levante International Development LTD is a specialist consultancy firm, working
to strengthen humanitarian interventions and development projects globally.
Levante’s teams work across the MENA, sub-Saharan Africa, CIS and south-
East Asia regions to support their clients – even in the most challenging con-
texts.

Levante provides strategic consultancy, M&E and Third-Party Monitoring servic-

es to international agencies and (I)NGOs. The firm regularly conducts research
studies (Needs & Market Assessments, Feasibility Studies), as well as project
design, proposal and resource development. These guidelines were developed
for Search for Common Ground as part of Levante’s ongoing work to support
and strengthen research practices in the sector. The guidelines were written by
Rio Jones with support from Sarulchana Viriyataveekul.

[Link]

Cover Page Photo Credit: Dastan Khdir, Unsplash

Contents
Using the Guidelines 4

Table of Contents
What is an Evaluative Case Study? 5
Definition:
What is a Case?:
Mixed Methods
Types of Case Study

Should I Use Case Studies? 7

Understand Your Objectives
Checklist
Which Types of Case Study?

How to Use Case Studies in Evaluation 9

Which Cases Should I choose? (Sampling)

Unit of Analysis
Types of Bias

Data Collection 11
Tools
Recording Data

Data Analysis 12
Developing Theories
Coding
Triangulation
Cross-Case Analysis
Consider Alternate Explanations
Ethical Approaches

Report Writing 15
Make Your Case Compelling
Presentation of Data & Analysis

Tools & Resources 18

Quality Checklist
Example Case Studies

Tools & Resources 19

Appendix 1 - Bibliography 20
 4
Using the Guidelines
These guidelines serve as a practical resource for program and MEAL teams
seeking to develop evaluative case studies (or considering their use).

The guidelines first seek to introduce the reader to the concept of case studies -
providing a clear definition outlining how they might be used for evaluation purposes.
They aim to guide evaluator decision-making on whether case study methods will be
beneficial and relevant to their objectives. The advantages and disadvantages of case
study methodologies, as well as a short checklist to test the appropriateness of case
study methods, are outlined in this document.

Once the reader is confident that a case study methodology is appropriate for their
objectives, the guidelines provide instructions on how to use case studies for an
evaluation, and touch on case selection, data collection, data analysis and report writ-
ing. Guideline sections are complementary, and can be used in tandem with one
another; references to other guideline chapters are used to help the reader
navigate the relevant categories.

Finally, where appropriate, the guidelines provide links to and suggestions for
additional resources to assist the evaluator in case study development. These include
short examples or extracts from existing case studies, a “Quality Checklist,” and report
samples.
 5
What is an Evaluative Case Study?

Definition: What is a Case?:

Case Studies1 Case studies focus on a particular instance: however, a ‘case’ could be as small as an
individual person or as large as a country. A case might be (but not limited to):
A case study is a method of learning about one specific ‘instance’ in detail. This An event or training
‘instance’ could be as small as an individual person, or as large as a whole country (See A single beneficiary or client
What is a Case?). A site, center, institution or organization
A group of people
The ‘instances’ selected for case study analysis are often complex: there are many A particular project activity
different factors which influence them. These are hard to distinguish without in-depth A country
analysis and understanding the case in its context. As a result, case studies are
characterized by extensive description and analysis of the case, using different You will need to decide what unit of analysis is going to constitute a ‘case’ for your evaluation, and
sources of information. The goal of a case study is to get a complete picture of what is how many cases you will use. See Sampling for guidance on how to make this decision. Further,
happening in an ‘instance’ and why. you need to decide how you will select the particular cases/units, and why – are you interested in
looking at successes or failures? Typical or representative cases? See Which Types of Case Study.

Evaluations
Mixed Methods
Evaluation is the systematic and objective assessment of an on-going or completed It is important to understand that case studies are not specific tools, but rather an
project or program, its design, implementation and results. Evaluations study the re- approach to carrying out evaluations. When creating your case study, you will use a
lationship between inputs into a program/project and outcomes. Good evaluations combination of different tools and methods to develop your rich and detailed descriptions
should inform programming decisions that will produce stronger outcomes. of the case. These include quantitative and qualitative tools, such as document & data
review, interviews & focus group discussions, observations/site visits, short questionnaires,
and visual evidence. By combining different tools, you will be able to piece together a reliable
Case Study Evaluations answer to your key evaluation questions (see Triangulation). See Data Collection and Data
Analysis for further details.
In the context of an evaluation, a case study is different from other data collection and
data analysis techniques. It does not try to understand what happened everywhere a
project took place. Instead, it focuses on a particular part of that project in detail – al-
Types of Case Study
lowing you to explore impacts (what occurred and why) and the different factors which Various types of case study exist and suit different purposes for your evaluation or research. They
influence an intervention. can serve as ‘descriptive,’ adding additional depth or color to other methods, or as ‘explanatory’ to
answer questions about how an intervention is working. There are four types of case studies, namely:
One of the central advantages of case study evaluations is that they help you to under-
stand in-depth how an intervention is working in its context. They provide powerful and 1. Illustrative: In-depth information to support data gathered through other methods (i.e. sur-
accessible ways of communicating this to an audience. veys). Adding context and helping readers understand what is happening and why.
2. Exploratory: Identify themes for later investigation. Used when little is known about a
context or intervention on the ground.
3. Critical instance: Deep dive into an interesting/unusual case to understand why something
1
This explanation is based on the classic and widely accepted definition established by the US General in partiuclar has occurred/is occurring.
Accounting Office. (US General Accounting Office, (1990) Case Study Evaluation) 4. Explanatory Answers questions about program implementation and/or program effects.
2
[Link] (Austrian Develop- These are most commonly used for project evaluation.
ment Agency. (2009) Guidelines for Project and Program Evaluations)

See Which Types of Case Study? for further details.

 6
Why Use Case Studies in Evaluation?
Case studies can be a highly effective and powerful tool for evaluating humanitarian and development interventions – especially those where the relationship between inputs and outputs is not
straightforward or obvious. They offer a number of advantages when used instead of, or in combination with other methods.

However, case studies are not always appropriate for program/project evaluations and have a number of disadvantages. Please study the values and limitations below, along with the practical
checklist under Should I Use Case Studies for My Evaluation?

Value of Using Case Studies in Evaluation Limitations of Using Case Studies in Evaluation
Understand Complex Situations & Contexts: Case Studies are Not Always Generalizable: By definition, Case Studies only tell us
valuable for looking at complex contexts where there are many about a specific instance, therefore we cannot use them to make
different factors influencing an intervention which cannot be controlled broad conclusions – unless we combine them with other methods.
for.
Quantitative methods, such as surveys, are generalizable because
Sometimes, looking at specific cases gives us a more grounded they often have large, statistically significant samples. Case Studies
understanding of how much an intervention is contributing to an can add depth to general findings, but they cannot be used on their
impact than statistics. own to tell us what is happening everywhere and in every other
instance.
For this reason, they can be particularly useful for evaluating the
impacts of peace-building interventions, where there are many Can only answer ‘what’, how’ and ‘why’ questions. Note that case
variables that cannot be controlled for. By complementing the studies can answer 'what' questions - just not necessarily
information that is not as easily observed in other kinds of evaluation, generalizable ones. Nonetheless, they can serve a descriptive purpose
case studies help us zoom in and look at how an intervention is of telling us what is happening in a particular instance. See
‘contributing’ to change, rather, as well as account for other factors. Understand Your Objectives.

Identify Unexpected/Unintended Consequences: Studying a situation Case Studies rely on multiple data sources and detail; therefore, a
in-depth, without rigid research questions and undertaking data degree of access is required to project
collection and analysis concurrently, allows you to identify locations/beneficiaries/stakeholders & staff/activities for
impacts/factors which you might not have considered at the start of observation/documentation etc.
the project. Case Studies are vulnerable to biases (see Data Analysis for ways of
Cost/Time Effective: There is a perception that Case Studies take too countering them).
much time and too many resources. However, this is not necessarily
true. Case studies can be adapted to different forms and contexts.

Logistically, you might find that a few in-depth case studies are easier
to achieve than research methods which require access to many
different locations.
Analyze Multiple Interventions: A Case Study can look at how various
interventions might be working together/interacting with each other.
For example: A Case Study might be effective way of looking in detail
at how an individual beneficiary receives holistic support through
referrals to different Mental Health/Psychosocial Support, legal or
education services, which might be part of different projects or
organisations.
Accessible & Easy to Understand: Case Studies are a good way of
communicating the impacts and challenges of interventions to a wide
range of audiences. They tell stories and provide context.
 7
Should I Use Case Studies?

Understand Your Objectives Checklist

The first step is to establish your Key Objectives and Key Evaluation Questions. These may Below is a quick decision-making checklist to help you understand whether Evaluative Case
already have been prescribed at the beginning of the project, or you may Studies are appropriate for your objectives. You should be able to answer ‘Yes’ to the
develop them based on the intervention’s Theory of Change. following four questions to proceed:
Criteria Yes No
You should have between 5-7 broad Evaluation Questions (and perhaps some more specif-
ic ones within these), focused on the impact, effectiveness, relevance/sustainability of your You want to answer ‘how’ or ‘why’ evaluation
project. questions – or even simply ‘what happened?’

Further Resources for Developing Evaluation Questions

The project you are evaluating is ongoing or recently
Evaluation
‘Practical Questions
Guide: Checklist
Focus Group for Program
Discussions’, Evaluation,
Velida Wingate &
Dzino-Silajdzic, completed.
Catholic Relief
Schroeter Services,Michigan
- Western 2017 University, 2016
ht[Link]
tps://[Link]/help-library/practical-guide-focus-group- This is necessary to ensure that you can speak to
discussions relevant stakeholders and make observations, rather
gate%[Link]
than relying on historical data.
Case Study methodsand
‘Designing areConducting
best for answering
Focus Group‘how’Interviews’,
and ‘why’ evaluation questions, because
Richard A. Krueger,
they focus2002
on particular
[Link]
instances in detail. If you need to answer questions f as ‘how
many’, ‘to what extent’ or ‘how often’, then you will need to use other methods. There is time/possibility for in-depth data collection.

Example Key Evaluation Questions This will depend on the type of Case Studies you are
using in your evaluation and choose as your ‘case.’
How successfully is the intervention contributing to impact, following the Theory of Questions of time and resources are relative to your
Change? organisation and the capacity of your team.
However, Case Studies do not need to take a long
Are there any unintended consequences (positive or negative)? Why are these time. 2-3 days for in-depth interviews and
taking place? observations could be enough (See Data Collection).

Why are there differences in outcomes for different locations/activities/individual Think carefully about the scope of your Evaluation
and whether it is feasible. Use the rest of the
beneficiaries? information in this document to guide you.

You are familiar with qualitative research methods

Case studies cannot assess to what extent an intervention is addressing the different Men- like Focus Group Discussions, Key Informant
tal Health and Psychosocial Support (MHPSS) needs of all vulnerable individuals in a com- Interviews and Observations
munity or how many of them your organization has reached, for example.

However, they can help understand how an individual beneficiary interacts with an inter-
vention and which factors might influence impact. Case studies may also be an effective Which Types of Case Study?
approach for determining why an intervention might be more useful for some beneficiaries
than others (for reasons which are not immediately apparent). Once you have completed the Checklist and decided that a case study might be appropri-
ate, the next step is to understand which type of case study you will use. This is important as
Understanding your objectives is also crucial to knowing which type of case study you will it will determine your data collection, analysis and report writing approaches. Having a clear
employ for your evaluation, and the subsequent techniques that you will use (see Which idea of your case study type(s) will help you navigate your next decisions.
Type of Case Study?).
Take a look at the statements below and consider which most closely match your evaluation
objectives. You may even wish to use more than just one type.
 8
Should I Use Case Studies?

Which Types of Case Study?

I want to add in-depth information and

examples to support data gathered
through different methods as part of
an evaluation. This is to help add con- Illustrative
text and help readers understand. This
type of case study describes what is
happening in 1-2 instances and why.

I am preparing for a large study/ evalua-

tion and I want to identify themes for later
investigation.

Your case study will be used to help cre-

ate evaluation questions, strategies and
Exploratory
tools. It is useful when little it known about
how things are working in practice on the
ground.

I want to look at a particular case which is

interesting or unusual.

For example, I want to understand more Critical

about why the project is working/ not
working for a particular individual / loca- Instance
tion. Critical instance case studies look at
questions of cause and effect.

I I want to understand more about how

the project has been implemented and
answer questions about efficiency and
effectiveness (Program Implementation)

And / Or Explanatory
I want to examine the effects of the pro-
ject and the intervention impact
(Program Effects)
 9
How to Use Case Studies in Evaluation
Which Cases Should I choose? (Sampling)

Unit of Analysis Example:

Governorate Level:

One of the fundamental decisions is to decide how ‘big’ or ‘small’ your individual case will be. This case study is an explanatory, program effect type. It explores the reasons
Think about your objectives and research questions, as well as your team’s capacity, when behind short and long-term improvements for female participation in politics in
making this decision. Your cases could be: Governorate X of Country Y.

Micro-level: e.g. looking at individual beneficiaries/ Our unit of analysis in this case study is Governorate X. This case has been
communities where a project was selected because it appears to have seen the most success in female partic-
implemented ipation of the Governorates where Project Z has been implemented. This is the
Meso-level: e.g. looking at specific project result of our Evaluation’s overall sampling approach to look at Best/Worst Cas-
activities/services delivered/policies es. The study seeks to understand the role of Project Z and its contribution to
Macro-level: e.g. taking a whole project or context/ these improvements, within the wider context of changes in Governorate X over
country as a case and comparing with others the last 5 years, and any other factors which may have contributed to change.

Your cases could also be ‘embedded’ – you could choose to look at micro cases (for
example, certain practitioners who received training) within a larger overall case (for
example, a particular center or institution which has received capacity building/
intervention).

When you write up your case study, you should clearly define your unit of analysis.

Types of Bias Example:

Individual Level:

As with all kinds of evaluation methods, evaluative case studies are vulnerable to different This is a critical instance case study. It provides in-depth qualitative data to ex-
types of bias, which might affect the credibility of your evidence and conclusions: amine the factors contributing to the deterioration of trauma symptoms among
refugees in Camp X in Governorate Y.
Evaluator Bias - Given the evaluator’s central role throughout the process of de- Our unit of analysis in this case study is an individual receiving our MHPSS service
signing and conducting a case study, any pre-conceived ideas or perceptions this in refugee camp X. This case has been selected because the beneficiary repre-
person has (even unconscious ones) have the potential to influence the results. sents a small group of clients who reported a marked increase in ‘feeling as if you
This is why it is important to consider alternate explanations and theories. don’t have a future’ in the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ) at Endline. This
is the result of our Evaluation’s overall sampling approach to look at unique cases.
Selection Bias – Choosing cases for the wrong reasons (i.e. convenience) can un- The study seeks to understand the gap in the MHPSS service and the potential
dermine the conclusions of your evaluation. (See Sampling Methods) role of external factors in contributing to the lower HTQ score.
Bias can occur at every stage of case study development, from formulating a hypothesis to
data analysis. Fortunately, there are ways to minimize these biases – as explained through-
out the rest of the guidelines.
 10
How to Use Case Studies in Evaluation
Sampling Methods
Once you have decided on the size of your unit of your case, you need to decide which
cases you will pick. You should provide clear reasons why you have chosen these cases, by
specifying your sampling strategy – this is important for guarding against selection bias
(which can undermine the conclusions of your evaluation if cases are chosen for the
wrong reasons.

For case study evaluations, sampling is nearly always ‘purposive.’ This means that
cases are not selected randomly, but rather chosen by you because they can tell you
something in particular:
Bracketing: Choose cases at the extremes of an intervention, in order to exam-
ine what explains the differences

Best/Worst Cases: Choose these to look at the factors which influenced suc-
cesses or failures to generate lessons learned

Representative Cases: Choose these to ensure cases which represent different

variations (i.e. different project locations, different types of beneficiary).

Typical Cases: Choose these to understand what is happening in a typical in

stance and why (i.e. to provide depth to a wider evaluation using other
methods).

How Many Cases?

The number of cases should remain limited so that you can focus on understand-
ing cases in-depth. Your choice will depend on the type of sampling you choose:

Examples:

You are evaluating a capacity building program implemented in districts within

five different regions. You might choose to sample five ‘representative cases’, one
from a ‘typical’ district in each region

You are evaluating holistic mental health and human rights support to vulnerable
beneficiaries and want to examine why some beneficiary cases have been
successfully closed while others remain open (i.e. have not graduated from
support). You might choose to select two successful cases and two unsuccessful
cases for our evaluation.

When Should I Select the Cases?

Not all of the cases have to be selected up front. Case Study approaches are
constantly evolving as we undertake Data Collection and Analysis at the same
time. Some cases might be selected later in your evaluation as evidence comes
available, or later in the project as factors become clearer and theories develop.
 11
How to Use Case Studies in Evaluation
Data Collection
It is often assumed that case studies solely rely on qualitative data. However, quantitative methods of data collection can also be used for case study development. Therefore, many
case study evaluations use mixed methods approaches and comprise detailed descriptions made up of data collected from a number of different sources, using different tools.

The more sources , the better understanding you will have of what has happened, how it has happened and why. The data from these sources should be analyzed together in order to answer
your key evaluation questions.

You should describe the techniques and data sources for your study:
Tools Example:

The following tools are commonly used as data sources in Case Study The case study analysis comes from multiple data sources and adopts a mixed-methods approach. Quantitative
Evaluation: data was gathered from available official statistics in Governorate X, in addition to surveys with male and fe-
Data collection should begin with a detailed reading male participants in the political landscape. The report also makes extensive use of qualitative evidence such as
& analysis of existing documentation and data
Document & regarding a case. This will inform the development Key Informant Interviews with political, administrative and party officials, Focus Group Discussions with Project Z
Data Review of other tools. However, as with everything in a beneficiaries and project, governorate and national level documentation and research. Researchers used
Case Study Evaluation, your analysis and collection triangulation before drawing conclusions and maintained a chain of evidence.
of relevant documents should be ongoing.
In-depth interviews and discussions usually form
the basis of Case Study research. These should
typically be semi-structured, with open-ended Further Resources for Designing & Undertaking Focus Group
Interviews & questions around topics of interest (Based on your
Focus Group key research questions). ‘Practical Guide: Focus Group Discussions’, Velida Dzino-Silajdzic,
Discussions ‘Practical
Catholic Guide:
Relief Focus2017
Services, Group Discussions’, Velida Dzino-Silajdzic, Catholic Relief Services, 2017
See Further Resources below for information on ht[Link]
tps://[Link]/help-library/practical-guide-focus-group-
how to design Focus Group Discussions and
interviews. d i s cussionGuide:
‘Practical s Focus Group Discussions’, Velida Dzino-Silajdzic,
‘Designing
Catholic Relief and Conducting
Services, 2017Focus Group Interviews’, Richard A. Krueger, 2002
Ways of gathering rich data on how an intervention [Link]
[Link]
is working on the ground – these tools allow the ‘Designing
discussions
and Conducting Focus Group Interviews’, Richard A. Krueger,
researcher to see and experience what is 2002 [Link]
happening and are well suited to Case Study
Evaluations. Field notes and direct quotes are ‘Designing and Conducting Focus Group Interviews’, Richard A. Krueger,
Observations/
useful data for developing your Case Study. 2002 [Link] Recording Data
Site Visits For example: You could observe training
sessions/events, making observations about
engagement, body language etc. Case studies are made up of many different kinds of data, so you must ensure you have ways of recording and
Visits, however, should not be too brief. storing the data in a way which will make it easy for you to analyze and make comparisons across the different data
Observations require the researcher to spend sources. As case studies often include collection of personal information from beneficiaries, the data you collect
some time. must be stored safely to protect the privacy and the rights of those involved. See Ethical Approaches for more detail.
Short, structured questionnaires can be useful for
Short collecting targeted quantitative data (including Create a folder, spreadsheet or other database for your cases, where you can include inter-
Questionnaires demographic information) or relevant statistics – to view transcripts, observations, survey data and other materials for easy searching and filter-
be analyses alongside qualitative data.
ing. Coding the data (See Data Analysis) makes it easier to search and categorize. You should also in-
Visual evidence such as photographs, illustrations clude copies of the documents you have reviewed, with a brief list and summary of these documents.
(perhaps produced by children in child-centered
Visual research) can add depth to Case Studies and This data should be clearly labeled and easy to follow, so that somebody else can take a look at the information and see
Evidence increase accessibility to external readers. These
are more likely with Illustrative Case Studies where how you reached your conclusions. Building a ‘chain of evidence’ in this way increases the reliability of your Case Study.
you are looking to add depth/colour to information
collected through other methods.
 12
How to Use Case Studies in Evaluation
Data Analysis

Developing Theories Coding

Unlike some other evaluation approaches, data analysis for a case study evaluation is ‘Coding’ is a means of marking and categorizing themes which emerge as you are
ongoing and starts at the same time as data collection. analyzing your data. Creating codes for common instances in the data
makes it easy to recognize and search for these themes in your database.
This is because, with case study research, the data collector, analyst and report writer are You might create codes to categorize similar interview responses or common
often the same person or the same small team of people. Naturally, as you undertake data themes which come in responses
collection (reading documents or interviewing sources) you will start to develop your own
theories and answers to the research questions. You might notice, through reading project documentation, that problems/chal-
lenges of a certain type occur regularly, and create a code to categorize these so
You might notice, for example, that the same factors are mentioned as important by that you can count them or identify them more clearly in subsequent data analysis
different interviewees – as such, themes or patterns will emerge.

Coding can either be done manually, or through software packages. For your evaluation pur-
Pattern Matching Techniques poses (unless you are undertaking large-scale research with multiple cases) manual coding is
likely more practical/affordable and will also help develop a deep understanding of the data.
Pattern matching involves comparing a ‘predicted’ or expected pattern of events, such as
one described by an intervention’s Theory of Change, with the patterns which emerge from Coding will be an ongoing process as you undertake data collection. If you are collecting data
your Case Studies. You are asking: is what we expected to happen actually taking place or for your case studies in phases, you might develop codes in the first phase of data collection
not? that you will apply in following phases.

As your research continues, you might seek to match patterns which emerged from your
initial data collection with others which are revealed later on. If these patterns confirm each Example of Coding Responses:
other, then the validity of your research is strengthened.
Positive testimonies of change from service users

All FGDs highlighted the following factors as part of their Theory of Change:

(1) The center representing a physical and emotional safe space

(2) The staff being respectful, helpful and ‘like family’

(3) Being occupied helped them forget about traumatic memories of the past

(4) The center fostered positive relationships among the community, allowing a space for
women to socialize outside of the home

(5) The sense of empowerment related to being able to read and write.

[Extract: ‘Collective Trauma among displaced populations in Northern Iraq: A case study
evaluating the therapeutic interventions of the Free Yezidi Foundation’, 2020]
 13
How to Use Case Studies in Evaluation
Data Analysis

Triangulation Cross-Case Analysis

‘Triangulation’ means combining different types of data from different sources (i.e. look- You have likely chosen to undertake more than one case study for your Evaluation (See
ing at short survey, Focus Group Discussions, Observation data and documentation to- How Many Cases? and Sampling Methods) for the purposes of comparing and contrast-
gether). This process will produce different perspectives which can strengthen your ing cases (i.e. looking at best/worst cases, extreme cases, representative cases etc.).
analysis and deepen understanding of the complexities of a case. Triangulation also This process will also strengthen your conclusions as well as the validity of your findings.
strengthens the validity of your conclusions and helps overcome some forms of bias.
It is important to point out that each case should be treated first as a separate
If different sources of data produce similar conclusions (for example, similar conclusions come study, before cross-case analysis is undertaken.
from interviews, observations from researchers and documentary evidence) then you can
be confident of the reliability of your theories and answers to the Key Evaluation Questions. Cross-case analysis usually features tables to organize relevant data and case
characteristics side by side, arranged by relevant data outcomes/research questions.
Triangulation may also highlight areas that require further data collection or analysis. For
example, different sources may produce different conclusions about the same topic or event. You can then look across the tables to make your analysis easier and draw your
Keeping a clear and accessible database will help you return to the raw data to see how conclusions. The process of coding, ensuring that common responses/themes are
conclusions were reached or give you ideas on where to find out more. categorized, will help you with this process. Below is an example of how cases might be
organized in a table (e.g. for individual MHPSS intervention beneficiaries in a particular
You can also ‘triangulate’ between different data collectors in your team, examining vary- center):
ing perspectives of instances or events. This can be helpful for strengthening conclusions or
gaining a more nuanced understanding of what is happening and why.
The process could also alert you to issues of bias and quality assurance. Example:

The way different data sources overlap, confirm or contradict each other should result in giving
a richer, and ‘true’, picture of your case. When selecting and designing the tools for your re-
search, you should consider how the different tools will complement each other and have a plan
for how they might be combined. The process of coding data, as explored above, will also help
you make comparisons between different data sources and identify themes in your research.

Further Resources for Triangulation

‘Practical Guide: Focus Group Discussions’, Velida Dzino-Silajdzic, Further Resources for Comparing Case Studies
‘How toRelief
Catholic combine multiple
Services, research methods: Practical Triangulation’,
2017
htPatrick
tps://wKennedy,
[Link](2009).
.org/hel[Link]
p-library/practical-guide-focus-group-
discussions ‘Practical Guide: Focus Group Discussions’, Velida Dzino-Silajdzic,
Comparative
Catholic Case Studies,
Relief Services, 2017 Methodological Briefs Impact Evaluation No.9,
htDelwyn
tps://wGoodrick,
[Link],
.org/help2014
-library/practical-guide-focus-group-
‘Designing and Conducting Focus Group Interviews’, Richard A. Krueger, discussions
2002 [Link]
‘Designing and Conducting Focus Group Interviews’, Richard A. Krueger,
2002 [Link]
 14
How to Use Case Studies in Evaluation
Data Analysis
Consider Alternate Explanations
As we have shown in the section, case studies are analyzed by using the different data
sources to build and match theories about how an intervention is working and why.
This is achieved through a continual coding process (identifying themes and patterns),
triangulation (increasing validity by using different sources) and cross-case analysis.

However, given that you are looking at specific instances, and not large or statistical-
ly representative datasets, it is very important that you challenge the theories you
develop by considering different explanations for the patterns you observe.

One of the big advantages of case study evaluation is that it allows you to as-
sess how other contextual factors are contributing to the success or failure of an
intervention – as well as tease out in detail the specific way in which your project activities are
working and identify any unintended consequences.

You can increase the confidence in your conclusions by exploring and potentially
rejecting alternate explanations. You must show in your analysis that you have done
so. For example, if your conclusions are that Project Z has directly contributed to
increased female political participation in Governorate X, you should explore
alternative explanations (i.e. political participation has improved for everyone,
regardless of gender, independently of Project Z as a result of new legislation etc.).

Ethical Approaches
Development project evaluation must account for potential risks. Because case stud-
ies often are intensely personal and hands-on exercises, there are several ethical and
do-no-harm considerations to keep in mind at each stage of case study development.
Protecting the privacy and the rights of those involved is particularly relevant and
important. The most pressing issue is that the level of description required to portray the rich-
ness of the cases may mean that the cases, and the participants within the cases, are iden-
tifiable. As such, this issue must be clearly discussed and negotiated with those participating.

When preparing for data collection or training facilitators, evaluation managers should
include an explanation of the procedures an evaluator will use to protect human sub-
jects. In the conflict context, special attention should be given to the composition of the
evaluation team, ensuring that the team itself possesses deep contextual knowledge
and can access stakeholders on different sides of the conflict divide. When collecting
the most reliable and valid information, data collection technique(s) should account for
the safety of the researcher and target group. Lastly, when writing the case studies,
disguise may be necessary to preserve the participant’s confidentiality. Details that are
not essential to an understanding of the case may be modified and an explanatory note
included in the report to indicate this has been done to protect participant identities.
 15
How to Use Case Studies in Evaluation
Report Writing
Overall, your Case Study Evaluation report should be a combination of:

‘Thick’ Factual Interpretation of

Description Events & Findings

The exact structure will depend on the Type of Case Study you have chosen and whether
the case studies are part of a broader evaluation (i.e. if you are using them for illustrative
purposes) or the central method themselves.

Report
SumStructure Guide
Introduction & Provide a short Introduction/Executive Summary
mary of briefly outlining the context and key findings of the
IKnetyroIs dsuucetison & report. Provide a short Introduction/Executive Summary
Summary of briefly outlining the context and key findings of the
Introduction
KIIn
ettyrro
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n &
& & Clearly
Provide
report.
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a short
purpose Introduction/Executive
Introduction/Executive of your Evaluation Summary
Summary and Summary briefly outlining the
ESvuam lum ataioryn of briefly outlining the context and key findings of the
OSummary
S
K
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what
briefly
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and
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report. the
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•• Define Justify
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state
why
your state and
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unit are
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and justify adopting
analysis
justify what and
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a howCase ofthe
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• Definestate
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•• State Define
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of the what and
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using Sampproject) ling)
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•• StateDefine
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Define your
the
your unit
timespan
timespan
unit of
of analysis
of
analysis of the
the and
study
and studyhow
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putunits
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units
Methodology • Describe
were selected the t o o
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a m p lliin g ))used
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(See overall
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n g
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are Describe
the
the
the thetimespan
the
evaluators, too
timespan ls &how
tools
of
of &
the
methods
the
methods
were
study
study used
they
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put it it
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context with
with the the overall
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information about about the the process process (who (who are the
• Describe the tto
the ooolls s& methods used
M
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y •• are Describe
Provide the evaluators,
evaluators, information how
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information is stored about
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). Some
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stored Some Rec data
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methods provided in the
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challenge
(i.e. transcripts)
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body • of Discuss
your report. challenge & limitations
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data
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n the main body of your report.
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and engaging in cross-case analysis, then
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carefully
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h edm mye eyou s
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carefully example,consider for an
the explanatory
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e
Body of the study
S t u d y report
you have could chosenbe structured
and what along
will be 3 broad
Body of the You should carefully consider the Type of Case Study you have cho-
Report
Report
You
You should
sections:
appropriate. should sen
carefully
For example,
carefully
and what
consider
consider
will forbe
the
an
the T
Tyyp pe
explanatory
appropriate. eo off CCa as e
scase
e example, for an explanatory
For
S
Sttu
studyud dy you
you have
yreport could
have chosen
be structured
chosen and
and what whatalong will
will be be3 broad
Body of the case study report could be structured
Report
appropriate.
1.
sections: Specific For context
appropriate. For example, for an explanatory example, of the for an
project explanatory
i.e. casealong 3 broad sections:
case
B o d y o f t h e study
study report
needs/issues
report could
could be
beof structured
certain groups,
structured along
along 3
3 broad
background
broad
Body of the sections:
1. to Specificcasescontext of the project i.e.
R
Reep po orrtt sections: 1. project Specific context of the project i.e. needs/issues of
2. The needs/issues and of howcertain it isgroups,
implemented background in the
1.
1. contexts
to casescertain
Specific
Specific you aregroups,
context
context of the
the project
examining
of background
project (nature,i.e.
i.e. scope, to cases
2. details) needs/issues
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needs/issues Theand of
of how
project certain
certain is groups,
itand how itbackground
implemented
groups, background in the
is implemented in the contexts
3. The to
to cases
contexts results
cases you ofare theexamining
intervention, (nature,the scope,
2. The you are examining (nature, scope, details)
The project
2. responses
details) projectofand andcases how
howtoit ititis implemented
isand the other in
implemented in the
the
3. factors The 3.
contexts you are examining (nature, scope,the responses of case
contexts results Theyou
involved of results
are
the examiningof
intervention, the intervention,
(nature,
the scope,
details)
responses
details) toof itofcases
and theto itother and the factorsother involved
3. The
factors results involved
3. The results of the intervention, the the intervention, the
responses
responses of of cases
cases to to it it and
and the the otherother
factors
factors involved involved
 16
Conclusions Provide
Provide
clear conclusions, linking to evidence
providedProvide
clear clear
of conclusions,
conclusions,
in the body thelinking linking
to and
report evidence to evidence provided in the body of
your cases.
Conclusions provided
Make sure inyou
the the bodyand
report
have of the report
your
explored and Make
cases.
alternative your cases.
sure you have explored alternative
Conclusions Provide
Make sureclearyou conclusions,
have linking
explored to evidence
alternative
explanations
provided in and
explanations
the bodyaccounted
ofand
the for
report these
accounted and to thecases.
for
your best to the best of your ability.
these
explanations
of your ability. and accounted for these to the best
Conclusions Make
of yoursure you have explored alternative
ability.
explanations
Provide ffu ll suand
mmaccounted
aries of the forinthese
dividua tol cthe
asebest
s
Provide ull summ arisummaries
es of the indiof vidthe ases you
ual cindividual you cases you have used in your
of your
have used in yourfull
Provide
ability. evaluation, which the reader can
have
refer used
to whenin your evaluation,
reading the body which
of thereport.
the reader can
A
A
Appendices:
ppendices:
pspeendices: refer to evaluation,
Provide
Case fwhen
ull sum mariwhich
reading esthe the
th
of body reader
e inofdivthe al can
caserefer
idureport. s you to when reading the body of
C a have used the inreport.
your evaluation, which the reader can
CDescriptions
Daesspe criptioenss: These
refer
Theseto
should
when be
should
self-cthe
reading ontainedof
self-contbodyained case the studies
report. which
A
Dpescernipdtic ions show how yoube have first studied each case studies
case in which
Case show how
isolation andyoureaching
have first studied each case in
These
These should
isolation and reaching self-cconclusions
beshould obe ined case
conclusions
before
ntaself-contained
before
making
studies
makingcase
whichstudies which show how you
Descriptions comparisons.
show how you have first
have first studied each
comparisons. studied eachcasecase in
in toisolation and reaching conclusions
Appendices: Where appropriate/relevant,
isolation and reaching conclusions you maybefore wish making
A p p e n d i c e s : Where
include appropriate/relevant,
before
copies ofmaking
your data you
comparisons.
(i.e. may
interview wish to
Raw Data, comparisons.
include copies of your dataexamples
(i.e. interview
R ao wlsD
TAppendices: ,na ta, transcripts,
Where observations),
appropriate/relevant, you may ofwish
toolstoused
A
T
o
p
o p
o les , d i c e s : Raw
and a
include
Where
transcripts,
list of
copies
appropriate/relevant,
observations),
documents
of your
examples
reviewed
data (i.e. over ofthe
interview
you
tools may wish to include copies of your
used
course
B
R i
a bwl i o Dg r
a a
t ap,h y and a list of
data documents
(i.e. reviewed
interview over
transcripts, the course
observations), examples of tools used,
BData,
ibliogra Tools,
phy of the evaluation.
transcripts, observations), examples of tools used
Tools, of the evaluation.
BBibliography
ibliography and a and a list of documents reviewed over the course of the evaluation.
list of documents reviewed over the course
of the evaluation.

Make Your Case Compelling

A well-crafted story can communicate abstract and complex ideas in ways that will
ensure your case study is accessible for outside audiences:
Understand the audience - Identify your case study readers. What can you as-
sume they will already know, and what needs to be explained?

Identify the “take home message” - Ask yourself what key takeaway you are
trying to share

Present your case findings – At minimum, a case study report should include
details on background information (set out an issue that was being addressed),
narrative of the case (what happened along the way), change and results, and
lessons learned. To make a case study compelling, there are several presentation
strategies you can choose:
Natural history - Chronological presentation of the case, similar to a nar-
rative story

Critical incident – The report is built around a single incident that captures
the evaluative message of the report

Thematic – The report is organized around the key themes that have
emerged from the case study

Within and between – This is used for reporting multiple case studies. The
report should contain both the individual case study summaries (‘within’)
and results of the cross-case analysis (‘between’)

Enhance the story - Use description to tell the story, use quotes to capture
meaningful moments and/or use pictures to express feelings and change

Test the case study – Ask someone not involved in the project to tell what key
messages they understand from the draft case study. If what they describe does
not match your plan, then you may need to adjust the draft.
 17
How to Use Case Studies in Evaluation
Report Writing

Presentation of Data & Analysis

Both in writing your individual case studies and in presenting your theories and analy-
sis, it is important to make sure that your report is readable and accessible.

Remember that a key advantage of case studies is that they provide context and
color to a project Evaluation. While case studies are rich in detail, they should not be a
long block of text:
Use summary tables and diagrams which show the key elements of cases

Use direct quotes to allow the subjects of the case study to speak for themselves

Use visual evidence where possible and appropriate (i.e. photographs from
observation tools, examples of training/event materials etc.)

Your report should be a story which allows the reader to understand how and why you
have come to your conclusions – and which also explores alternative narratives.
 18
Quality Checklist
Adapted from: ‘Technical Note on Evaluative Case Studies’, USAID, 2013
(With additions)

Question
Tools & Resources
Are the objectives and research questions clearly stated?

Is there a clear justification of why the Case Study approach has

been chosen?

Are the types of Case Study chosen clearly defined, along with the
units of analysis?

Is there a justification for the number of cases chosen and the

sampling?

Has the context of the intervention and Evaluation been clearly

described?

Are the Data Collection and Data Analysis methods clearly

described?

Are the challenges and limitations discussed (including potential

biases)?

Are alternative explanations explored for the conclusions?

Example Case Studies

Collective Trauma among displaced populations in Northern Iraq:
A case study evaluating the therapeutic interventions of the Free
Yezidi Foundation’, 2019

This Case Study focuses on the specific interventions of the Free

Yezidi Foundation in the Kurdish Region of Iraq as their unit of
analysis. It makes use of quantitative data from Questionnaires
1. and Scales, as well as qualitative data from interviews and Focus
Group Discussions.

The report is structured around key themes to emerge from the

different data sources and makes extensive use of direct quotes.
It makes recommendations for further Mental Health and Psy-
chosocial Support work in Northern Iraq.

Link: [Link]
p?issn=1571-8883;year=2019;volume=17;issue=1;spage=3;ep-
age=12;aulast=Womersley;type=2
 19

Sample Case Study: Sierra Golden Kids Program, 2002

This case study focusses on an individual beneficiary (a child

Tools & Resources
soldier) as the unit of analysis, purposively selected as a success
story example. Methods employed are almost entirely qualitative,
focussing on in-depth interviews with stakeholders and the ben-
eficiary themselves. The case study is one of four used in a study
2. to explore the impact of Search for Common Ground’s Talking
Drum Studio project in Sierra Leone.

Information is organized by source and extensive use is made of

direct quotes to illustrate the story. The case study is less meth-
odologically rigorous than other examples, however, combined
with other methods it provides an illustrative example of how the
project worked in practice

This Case Study is taken from ‘Monitoring, Evaluation & Learning

For Fragile States & Peacebuilding Programs: Practical Tools for
Improving Program Performance and Results’. (Social Impact).
Pages 44-47

Multiple Examples, ‘Case Study Evaluations’, World Bank

This paper by Mora & Friedlander provides multiple examples of

3. Case Studies from World Bank studies, with a breadth of differ-
ent case types. The sampling strategies and data collection/anal-
ysis methods are clearly spelt out and are useful for examples for
report writing and considering which types of case study might be
appropriate for your evaluation.
Adolphus, M. (n.d.) How to…undertake case study research. Retrived from:
[Link]
methods/case_study.htm

Appendix 1 - Bibliography
Africa Soil Health Consortium. (2013). How to…write a good case study or
success story. [Link]

Balbach, E. (1999). Using Case Studies to do Program Evaluation

Department for International Development. (2014). Evaluating Impacts

of Peacebuilding Interventions: Approaches and methods, challenges and
considerations.

Greenaway, L. (n.d.). How to tell a ‘good’ story – a practical method for

co-creating case study (Feb 2017) – Evaluation and Professional Devel-
opment Services. Evaluation and Professional Development Services.
[Link]
cal-method-for-co-creating-case-study/

Hayes, R., Kyer, B. & Webber, E. (2015). The Case Study Cookbook. https://
[Link]/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-project-121615-164731/unre-
stricted/USPTO_CookbookFinal.pdf

Mansur, S. (2015, April 2). Digital Storytelling for Social Impact. The Rocke-
feller Foundation. [Link]
rytelling-social-impact/

Morra, L.G. and Friedlander, A.C. (n.d.). Case Study Evaluations, The World
Bank Group. [Link]

Social Impact. (n.d.). Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning For Fragile States
and Peacebuilding Programs: Practical Tools for Improving Program Per-
formance and Results

Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. SAGE Publications.

UNICEF. (n.d.). Methodological Briefs Impact Evaluation No.9: Comparative
Case Studies

US General Accounting Office. (1990). Case Study Evaluations. [Link]

[Link]/[Link]/10_1_9.pdf

USAID. (2013). Technical Note on Evaluative Case Studies.

Womersley & Arikut-Treece. (2019). Collective trauma among displaced

populations in Northern Iraq: A case study evaluating the therapeutic in-
terventions of the Free Yezidi Foundation

Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th Ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.