ENGINEERING GRAPHICS M ANU AL I B.

Tech

SCALES
Dimensions of large objects must be reduced to accommodate on standard size drawing sheet. This
reduction creates a scale of that reduction ratio, which is generally a fraction & such a scale is called
Reducing Scale and the ratio is called Representative Factor.

Representative Fraction:

The ratio of the dimension of the object shown on the drawing to its actual size is called the
Representative Fraction (RF).

𝐷 𝐷 𝑤 𝐿 ℎ ℎ ℎ 𝑤
𝑅𝐹 = 𝐷
= ℎ

**For computing R.F, the numerator and denominator should be in same units

Metric Measurements:

10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre( cm)

10 centimetres (cm) = 1 decimetre(dm)
10 decimetre (dm) = 1 metre(m)
10 metres (m) = 1 decametre (dam)
10 decametre (dam) = 1 hectometre (hm)
10 hectometres (bm) = 1 kilometre (km)
1 hectare = 10,000 m2

Types of Scales:

Plain Scales: A plain scale is simply a line which is divided into a suitable number of equal parts,
the first of which is further sub-divided into small parts. It is used to represent either two units or a
unit and its fraction such as km and hm, m and dm, cm and mm etc.

1. Construct a scale of 1:40 to read metres and decimetres and long enough to measure 6 m.
Mark on it a distance of 4.7 m.

Problem
No- S01-A

Figure.1.36

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2. The distance between two towns is 250 km and is represented by a line of length 50mm on
a map. Construct a scale to read 600 km and indicate a distance of 530 km on it.

Distance (Length) between two towns in the drawing = 50mm

Actual distance (length) = 250 km = 250*1000*1000 mm
Therefore, R.F =50mm/250km=50mm/250×1000×1000mm=1/5×106

R.F=1/5×106

Kilometer kilometre

Figure.1.37

Diagonal Scales:

Diagonal scales are used to represent either three units of measurements such as metres,decimetres,
centimetres or to read to the accuracy correct to two decimals.

Principle of Diagonal Scale:

The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions that is a unit, a subunit and a subdivision of
a subunit.
The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.
 Let the XY in figure be a subunit.
 From Y draw a perpendicular YZ to a suitable height.
 Join XZ. Divide YZ in to 10 equal parts.
 Draw parallel lines to XY from all these divisions and number them as shown.
 From geometry we know that similar triangles have their like sides proportional.
 Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7’ 7Z,
 we have 7Z / YZ = 7’7 / XY (each part being one unit)
 Means 7’ 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7 XY
Similarly
1’ – 1 = 0.1 XY
2’ – 2 = 0.2 XY
Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles, which are parallel to divided lines, become
progressively shorter in length by 0.1 XY.

Problem No- S01-B

3. The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km. In a railway map it is represented by a
line 5 cm long. Find its R.F. Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600
km. Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km
RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000
Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 105 = 15 cm

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Figure.1.38

4. An area of 144 sq cm on a map represents an area of 36 sq Km on the field. Find the RF

of the scale of the map and draw a diagonal scale to show Km, hectometers and
decameters and to measure up to 10 Km. Indicate on the scale a distance 7 Km, 5
hectometers and 6 decameters.

R.F.= 12/6×1000×100

Fig.1.39

5. Construct a diagonal scale 1/50, showing metres, decimetres and centimetres, to measure
upto 5 metres. Mark a length 4. 75 m on it.

R.F = 1/50

Figure.1.40

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Vernier Scale:

The vernier scale is a short auxiliary scale constructed along the plain or main scale, which can
read up to two decimal places.

 The smallest division on the main scale and vernier scale are 1 msd or 1 vsd respectively.
Generally (n+ 1) or (n-l) divisions on the main scale is divided into n equal parts on the
vernier scale.
 When 1 vsd < 1 it is called forward or direct vernier. The vernier divisions are numbered in
the same direction as those on the main scale.
 When 1 vsd> 1 or (1 + 1/n), It is called backward or retrograde vernier. The vernier divisions
are numbered in the opposite direction compared to those on the main scale.
 The least count (LC) is the smallest dimension correct to which a measurement can be made
with a vernier.
 For forward vernier, L C = (1 msd - 1 vsd)
 For backward vernier, LC = (1 vsd - 1 msd)

6. Construct a forward reading vernier scale to read distance correct to decameter on

a map in which the actual distances are reduced in the ratio of 1: 40,000. The scale
should be long enough to measure up to 6 km. Mark on the scale a length of 3.34
km and 0.59 km.

Construction:

1. RF = 1140000; length of drawing = 40000 = 15 cm

2. 15 cm is divided into 6 parts and each part is 1 km
3. This is further divided into 10 divisions and each division is equal to 0.1 km = 1 hectometer.
1msd = 0.1 km = 1 hectometer
L.C expressed in terms of msd = (1/1 0) msd
L C is 1 decameter = 1 msd - 1 vsd
1 vsd = 1 – 1/10 = 9/10 m s d = 0.09 km
4. 9 msd are taken and divided into 10 divisions as shown. Thus 1 vsd = 9110 = 0.09 km
5. Mark on it by taking 6vsd=6x 0.9 = 0.54km, 28 msd(27 + 1 on the LHS of 1) =2.8 km and
Tota12.8 + 0.54 = 3.34 km.
6. Mark on it 5 msd = 0.5 km and add to it one vsd = 0.09, total 0.59 km as marked.

Figure.1.41

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