1.

Explain the fundamentals of Error Detection and Error

Correction in the Data Link Layer. Why are they essential in
communication networks?
Answer:
Error detection and correction are techniques used in the Data Link Layer
(DLL) to ensure the accurate transmission of data over a noisy communication
channel. Transmission errors occur due to interference, signal distortion,
attenuation, and hardware failures, making it necessary to detect and correct
errors before they impact communication.
Error Detection Techniques:
. Parity Check: A single bit (parity bit) is added to ensure an even or
odd number of 1s in a data frame. If parity does not match at the
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receiver, an error is detected.
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. Checksum: A checksum value is calculated from the data and
appended before transmission. The receiver recalculates the
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checksum and verifies it against the received value.
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. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): Uses polynomial division to
generate a remainder (CRC code) that is transmitted with data. At the
receiver, a mismatch in division indicates errors.
Error Correction Techniques:
2
. Forward Error Correction (FEC): Uses redundant bits to allow the
receiver to correct errors without retransmission (e.g., Hamming
Code).
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. Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ): The sender retransmits data if an
error is detected at the receiver (e.g., Stop-and-Wait ARQ, Go-Back-N
ARQ, Selective Repeat ARQ).
Importance of Error Detection and Correction:
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. Ensures Reliable Communication – Prevents corruption of data.
. Improves Network Efficiency – Reduces the need for
retransmissions.
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. Enhances Security – Helps detect data tampering.
. Supports High-speed Networks – Necessary for applications like
VoIP, streaming, and cloud services.
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Error detection and correction techniques are fundamental for ensuring error-
free data transmission and efficient network performance.

2. What is Block Coding in error detection? Explain how

redundancy bits are used for detecting errors.
Answer:
Block Coding is an error detection and correction technique where data is
divided into fixed-size blocks and encoded with additional bits called
redundancy bits before transmission.
How Block Coding Works:
 . Encoding Process:
1
○ Data is divided into k-bit blocks.
○ r redundancy bits are added, forming an n-bit codeword (n = k +

r).
○ These extra bits help in detecting and correcting errors.

. Transmission and Reception:

○ The encoded n-bit codeword is transmitted.
○ The receiver checks for errors by verifying redundancy bits.

. Error Detection:
○ If a received codeword does not match the valid codewords, an

error is detected.
Example of (7,4) Hamming Code:
For a 4-bit data (e.g., 1011), three parity bits are added to form a 7-bit
codeword.
● Transmitted Codeword: 1011010
● If a single-bit error occurs, the receiver can detect and correct it
using parity bit calculations.
Advantages:
✔ Can detect and correct errors.
✔ Ensures high data integrity.
Disadvantages:
Adds redundancy, increasing overhead.
Complex decoding process for large data blocks.
Block coding is widely used in digital storage, satellite communication, and
networking to ensure reliable data transmission.

3. Define Hamming Distance. How is it used in error detection

and correction? Provide an example.
Answer:
The Hamming Distance between two codewords is the number of bit positions
in which they differ. It determines the error detection and correction
capability of a coding scheme.
Role in Error Detection and Correction:
● A code with a Hamming Distance (d_min) of d can detect up to
(d-1) errors.
● A code with a Hamming Distance of (2d+1) can correct d errors.
Example:
Consider two codewords:
Codeword 1: 1011001
Codeword 2: 1001101
The Hamming Distance = 3 (since three bits differ).
Hamming Code Example:
For a (7,4) Hamming Code, three parity bits are added to increase the
Hamming Distance to 3, enabling the receiver to detect and correct one-bit
errors.
Advantages:
✔ Enhances error detection and correction.
✔ Used in RAM, Ethernet, and satellite communication.
Disadvantages:
Increases data overhead.
The Hamming Distance is a fundamental concept in error control coding,
ensuring error-free data transmission in noisy communication channels.

4. Explain the working of Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) in error

detection with an example.
Answer:
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is an error detection technique that treats
data as a polynomial and divides it by a predetermined generator polynomial
(G(x)) using modulo-2 division. The remainder of this division is the CRC
checksum, which is transmitted along with the data.
Steps in CRC Calculation:
. Append r redundant bits (where r = degree of G(x)).
. Perform modulo-2 division of the data by G(x).
. CRC checksum is the remainder of this division.
. At the receiver, the same division is performed:
○ If the remainder = 0 → No Error.
○ If the remainder ≠ 0 → Error Detected.

Example:
Given:
● Data: 1101
● Generator Polynomial: 1011
Step 1: Append three zero bits (since r = 3)
1101 000
Step 2: Perform Modulo-2 Division by 1011
● Quotient = 101
● Remainder = 101 (CRC Checksum)
Step 3: Append Checksum to Data
1101 101 (Transmitted)
At the receiver, if division gives a zero remainder, the data is correct.
Advantages:
✔ Detects Burst Errors (common in networks).
✔ Efficient for Long Messages.
✔ Minimal Computational Overhead.
Limitations:
Does Not Correct Errors (only detects them).
Requires Extra Bits for Transmission.
CRC is widely used in Ethernet, ATM networks, Wi-Fi, and storage devices
for ensuring error-free data transmission.

5. Discuss the Stop-and-Wait Protocol for error control. What are

its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer:
The Stop-and-Wait Protocol is a basic flow control and error control
mechanism where the sender transmits a single frame and waits for an
acknowledgment (ACK) before sending the next frame.
Working Mechanism:
. The sender transmits a frame to the receiver.
. The receiver processes the frame and sends an ACK.
. The sender waits for the ACK before transmitting the next frame.
. If an error occurs, the receiver discards the corrupted frame, and the
sender retransmits after a timeout.
Advantages of Stop-and-Wait Protocol:
✔ Simple to Implement: Requires minimal buffering and processing.
✔ Ensures Reliable Data Transmission: Each frame is verified before moving
forward.
Disadvantages of Stop-and-Wait Protocol:
Inefficient for Long-Distance Communication: Since the sender waits for
each ACK, the bandwidth is underutilized.
High Latency: Transmission time increases due to waiting.
Wasted Bandwidth: Only one frame is in transit at a time, limiting
throughput.
Stop-and-Wait is best suited for low-speed, error-prone networks but is
inefficient for high-speed networks like the Internet.

6. Explain the Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)

protocol with a suitable example.
Answer:
Go-Back-N ARQ is an error control mechanism that allows the sender to
transmit multiple frames before receiving acknowledgments, increasing
efficiency.
Working Mechanism:
. The sender maintains a window of N frames and transmits them
continuously.
. The receiver checks each frame and acknowledges it.
. If a frame is corrupted or lost, the receiver discards that frame and
all subsequent frames.
. The sender retransmits from the lost frame onwards.
Example:
● If the sender sends Frames 1 to 5 and Frame 3 is lost, the receiver
discards Frames 3, 4, and 5.
● The sender retransmits Frames 3 to 5, leading to possible bandwidth
wastage.
Advantages of Go-Back-N:
✔ Better than Stop-and-Wait: Allows multiple frames in transit, improving
throughput.
✔ Works well in Low-Error Networks: Suitable for wired communication.
Disadvantages of Go-Back-N:
Bandwidth Wastage: If one frame is lost, all subsequent frames must be
retransmitted.
Inefficient in High-Error Networks: Frequent retransmissions slow down
communication.
Go-Back-N is widely used in TCP and high-speed wired networks.

7. Describe Selective Repeat ARQ and how it improves efficiency

over Go-Back-N ARQ.
Answer:
Selective Repeat ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) improves efficiency by
only retransmitting erroneous frames instead of discarding all subsequent
frames, unlike Go-Back-N.
Working Mechanism:
. The sender transmits multiple frames within a window.
. The receiver acknowledges each correctly received frame.
. If an error occurs in a frame, the receiver requests retransmission of
only that frame.
. The sender resends only the erroneous frame, reducing redundancy.
Example:
● Sender transmits Frames 1 to 5.
● Frame 3 is lost, but the receiver still stores Frames 4 and 5.
● Only Frame 3 is retransmitted, avoiding unnecessary retransmission of
Frames 4 and 5.
Advantages of Selective Repeat:
✔ Efficient Use of Bandwidth: Only faulty frames are retransmitted.
✔ Minimizes Latency and Delay: Avoids unnecessary retransmissions.
Disadvantages of Selective Repeat:
Requires More Buffering: The receiver must store out-of-order frames.
More Complex Implementation: Needs separate ACKs for each frame.
Selective Repeat ARQ is useful in wireless and satellite communication,
where bandwidth is limited.

8. What is the Sliding Window Protocol? Explain how it enhances

data flow efficiency in communication.
Answer:
The Sliding Window Protocol is a flow control mechanism that allows a
sender to transmit multiple frames before receiving an acknowledgment,
improving network efficiency.
Working Mechanism:
. Both sender and receiver maintain a window of frames that can be
sent and received.
. When the sender receives an ACK, the window slides forward.
. If an error occurs, the sender retransmits only the missing frame
 .
(Selective Repeat) or all frames after the lost frame (Go-Back-N).
Types of Sliding Window Protocols:
. Go-Back-N Sliding Window: Retransmits all frames after a lost frame.
. Selective Repeat Sliding Window: Retransmits only the lost frame.
Advantages:
✔ Improves Network Throughput: Allows continuous data transmission.
✔ Optimizes Bandwidth Usage: Multiple frames in transit at once.
Disadvantages:
Requires Buffering at Receiver: More memory is needed to store
unacknowledged frames.
Complex Window Management: Maintaining proper synchronization is
challenging.
The Sliding Window Protocol is used in TCP/IP networks and data link control
protocols like HDLC.

9. Describe the working of the Pure ALOHA protocol. What are its
advantages and limitations?
Answer:
Pure ALOHA is a random access protocol where devices transmit data
whenever they have data to send, without checking for channel availability.
Working Mechanism:
. A device transmits a frame at any time.
. If another device transmits at the same time, a collision occurs,
causing both frames to be lost.
. After a random backoff time, the sender retransmits the frame.
Advantages:
✔ Simple Implementation – No need for synchronization.
✔ Decentralized – No central control required.
Disadvantages:
High Collision Probability – No carrier sensing leads to frequent collisions.
Low Efficiency – Maximum efficiency is 18%.Used in: Early satellite
networks and RFID systems.

10. What is Slotted ALOHA? Compare it with Pure ALOHA and

explain how it reduces collisions.
Answer:
Slotted ALOHA improves Pure ALOHA by dividing time into fixed slots,
reducing collision probability.
Working Mechanism:
. Time is divided into equal slots.
. Devices can only transmit at the beginning of a time slot.
. If two devices transmit in the same slot, collision occurs.
. If no collision occurs, transmission is successful.
Comparison Between Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA:
Feature Pure ALOHA Slotted ALOHA
Transmission Timing Anytime Only at time slot
boundaries
Collision Probability High Lower (synchronized
 Feature Pure ALOHA Slotted ALOHA
Transmission Timing Anytime Only at time slot
boundaries
Collision Probability High Lower (synchronized
transmissions)
Efficiency 18% 37%
Synchronization No Yes
Needed
Advantages:
✔ Better Channel Utilization – Reduces collisions.
✔ Higher Efficiency – 37% compared to 18% in Pure ALOHA.
Disadvantages:
Requires Synchronization – Devices must align with time slots.
Used in: Wireless networks and satellite communication.

11. Explain Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

(CSMA/CD). How does it work in Ethernet networks?
Answer:
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) is a
multiple access protocol used in wired Ethernet networks to detect and
resolve collisions during data transmission.
Working Mechanism:
. A device listens to the channel before transmitting.
. If the channel is free, the device transmits data.
. If another device transmits at the same time, a collision occurs.
. Collision Detection – Both devices detect the collision.
. Random Backoff – Devices wait for a random time before
retransmitting.
Advantages:
✔ Reduces Collisions – Avoids unnecessary retransmissions.
✔ Efficient for Wired Networks – Works well in Ethernet.
Disadvantages:
Not Suitable for Wireless Networks – Cannot detect collisions effectively.
Performance Decreases with More Devices – More collisions occur in
busy networks.Used in: Traditional Ethernet (IEEE 802.3).

12. What is Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision

Avoidance (CSMA/CA)? Explain its role in wireless
communication.
Answer:
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) is a
multiple access protocol designed for wireless networks, where collision
detection is difficult.
Working Mechanism:
. A device listens to the channel before transmitting.
. If the channel is free, it sends a Request to Send (RTS) to the
 .
receiver.
. The receiver replies with Clear to Send (CTS) if the channel is still
free.
. The sender transmits the data.
Advantages:
✔ Prevents Collisions Before Transmission – Reduces retransmissions.
✔ Better for Wireless Networks – No need for direct collision detection.
Disadvantages:
More Overhead – Requires RTS/CTS control messages.
Increases Latency – Extra steps slow down data transfer.Used in: Wi-Fi
(IEEE 802.11) networks.

13. Compare and contrast CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA in terms of

their working principles and applications.
Answer:
Feature CSMA/CD CSMA/CA
Meaning Carrier Sense Multiple Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Access with Collision
Detection Avoidance
Usage Used in wired Used in wireless
networks (Ethernet) networks (Wi-Fi)
Collision Handling Detects collisions and Avoids collisions
retransmits before transmission
Method Listens to the channel, Uses RTS/CTS
detects collisions, handshake to prevent
then retransmits collisions
Efficiency High in wired networks High in wireless
networks
Overhead Low (no extra control High (due to RTS/CTS
packets) mechanism)
Key Differences:
● CSMA/CD is used in Ethernet, while CSMA/CA is used in Wi-Fi.
● CSMA/CD detects and resolves collisions, whereas CSMA/CA
prevents them beforehand.

14. Explain the concept of Random Access in multiple access

protocols. How does it differ from controlled access?
Answer:
Random Access allows devices to transmit data whenever they need, leading
to possible collisions. In contrast, Controlled Access assigns transmission
rights to devices to avoid collisions.
Random Access Protocols:
. Pure ALOHA – Devices transmit anytime, leading to high collisions.
. Slotted ALOHA – Devices transmit at time slots, reducing collisions.
 . CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) – Devices sense the channel
before transmitting.
Controlled Access Protocols:
. Polling – A central controller asks each device when it wants to
transmit.
. Token Passing – A token circulates among devices, and only the
token holder can transmit.
Comparison of Random and Controlled Access:
Feature Random Access Controlled Access
Collision Handling Collisions occur No collisions
Efficiency Lower due to Higher due to
retransmissions regulated access
Overhead Low (no scheduling High (requires
needed) coordination)
Used in Ethernet, Wi-Fi Token Ring, Bluetooth
Random access is preferred for low-traffic networks, while controlled access
is better for high-traffic and real-time systems.

15. Describe the multiple access protocols used in modern

networks and their applications.
Answer:
Multiple Access Protocols determine how multiple devices share a
communication channel. They are classified into:
1. Random Access Protocols:
● Pure ALOHA: Devices transmit anytime; used in satellite
communication.
● Slotted ALOHA: Time slots reduce collisions; used in RFID systems.
● CSMA/CD: Collision detection for Ethernet (wired networks).
● CSMA/CA: Collision avoidance for Wi-Fi (wireless networks).
2. Controlled Access Protocols:
● Polling: Central controller grants access; used in Bluetooth.
● Token Passing: A token circulates, granting access; used in Token
Ring networks.
3. Channelization Protocols:
● FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access): Allocates separate
frequency bands; used in radio broadcasting.
● TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): Allocates time slots; used in
2G GSM networks.
● CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): Uses unique codes per
device; used in 3G mobile networks.
These protocols ensure efficient communication in wired, wireless, and
cellular networks.