Settlement and Urbanisation

Hierarchy of Settlements
- Definition: A settlement is a place where people live, ranging from isolated dwellings to
megacities.
- Hierarchy: Organized by population size (Fig. 2.1):
- High-order settlements: Large cities (fewer, spaced far apart).
- Low-order settlements: Villages/hamlets (more numerous, closely spaced).
- Key Terms:
- Urban: Towns/cities.
- Rural: Countryside (may include large villages).
- Example: Molepolole, Botswana (classified as a village despite 70,000 population).

Hierarchy of Services
- Low-order services: Frequent use (e.g., local shops, primary schools) → small threshold
population and range.
- High-order services: Infrequent use (e.g., universities, furniture stores) → large threshold
population and range.
- Sphere of Influence: Area served by a settlement (Fig. 2.2–2.5):
- Larger settlements → larger spheres (e.g., capital cities influence entire countries).
- Factors affecting sphere size:
- Population density
- Transport links
- Wealth/competition
- Physical geography (e.g., mountains reduce accessibility).

Rural Settlement Patterns

Three main types (Table 2.3):
1. Nucleated: Clustered dwellings (e.g., villages).
- Reasons: Social benefits, defense, access to services.
2. Dispersed: Scattered dwellings (e.g., Canadian Prairies).
- Reasons: Poor farmland, large grazing areas.
3. Linear: Along roads/rivers (e.g., Madeira Island).
- Reasons: Access to transport/water, avoid steep slopes.

4. Site vs. Situation

- Site: Physical land where a settlement is built.
- Factors: Altitude, slope, water supply, natural resources.
- Situation: Relation to surrounding area.
- Factors: Transport routes, agricultural productivity, proximity to other settlements.

5. Factors Influencing Rural Settlement Sites

- Agricultural Land: Fertile soils (e.g., Nile Valley) support denser populations.
- Relief:
- Gentle slopes preferred (well-drained, easy to build).
- Steep slopes used historically for defense (e.g., hilltop villages).
- Aspect: Sunny slopes (north-facing in southern hemisphere) favored for warmth.
- Water Supply: Wet-point sites (near rivers/springs) vs. dry-point sites (higher ground).
- Drainage: Avoid floodplains (disease/waterlogging risks).

6. Case Study: Tsoelike Valley, Lesotho

- Site Factors:
- Altitude <2250m (warmer for crops).
- North-facing slopes (more sunlight).
- Avoids boggy valley floor.
- Problems:
- Short growing season, soil erosion, land fragmentation.
- Labor shortages due to migration to South African mines.
- Services Hierarchy:
- Dispersed settlements (lowest) → Qacha’s Nek (town, mid-level) → Maseru (capital,
highest).

Key Diagrams
- Fig. 2.1: Settlement hierarchy.
- Fig. 2.4: Spheres of influence for different services.
- Fig. 2.7/2.8: Settlement patterns (valley floors vs. steep slopes).

Case Study: Rio Poqueira Valley, Spain (MEDC)

- Site and situation:
- Nucleated villages (Pampaneira, Bubión, Capileira) for defense and service access.
- Settlements avoid valley floor; located on terraced slopes irrigated by mountain snowmelt.
- Contrasts with dispersed patterns in Lesotho (LEDC).

- Problems in MEDC rural areas:

- Youth migration to cities → aging population.
- Service closures (schools, shops) due to depopulation.
- Rising property prices from holiday homes → locals displaced.
- Tourism growth (hotels, guides) offsets agricultural decline.

- Services hierarchy:
- Villages (300-500 people): Basic services (shops, schools).
- Towns (e.g., Órgiva): Markets, secondary schools.
- Granada (provincial capital): University, international airport.

Urbanisation Trends
- Definition: Increase in urban population percentage.
- 1900: Only 2 "millionaire cities" (Paris, London).
- 2020: Over 400 cities >1 million; Tokyo-Yokohama largest (38 million).

- Regional differences:
- MEDCs: Urbanisation peaked (90% urban, e.g., Europe/N. America).
- LEDCs: Rapid growth since 1950 (e.g., Dhaka, Lagos).
- South America: Higher urbanisation than Africa/Asia (>75% urban).

- Causes of urbanisation:
- Rural-urban migration.
 - Population growth.
- Shift to secondary/tertiary industries.

- Counter-urbanisation:
- MEDC trend (e.g., UK since 1970): Wealthy move to rural areas, commute to cities.

Mega-Cities and Urban Growth

- Mega-city: Population >10 million (e.g., Pearl River Delta, China).
- PRD: 110 million people; integrated transport (high-speed rail, airports).
- "Greater Bay Area" plan: Links Hong Kong, Macau, Guangdong.

- Factors influencing urban growth:

- Nodal points: Route junctions (e.g., Khartoum at Nile confluence).
- Agricultural centres: Prairie cities (Edmonton, Winnipeg).
- Ports: Deep water, hinterland links (e.g., Rotterdam).

Administrative Capitals
- Colonial legacy: Many capitals were coastal ports (e.g., Lagos).
- Post-independence: New inland capitals (e.g., Abuja, Nigeria) for unity.
- Neutral sites: Canberra (Australia), Ottawa (Canada) avoid regional bias.

Key Data (2020)

- Most urbanised: Singapore (100%), Kuwait (98%).
- Least urbanised: Burundi (11%), Papua New Guinea (13%).
- Fastest-growing cities: Delhi, Dhaka, Karachi (tropical regions).

Urban Land Use – Central Business District (CBD)

Features of the CBD:

●​ Government buildings are located there.​

●​ High-order retail services (e.g. department stores) are found in the center, while
specialist shops are on the outskirts.​

●​ Offices, often for large companies, are located in the CBD.​

●​ Includes theatres, hotels, and restaurants.​

●​ Old historic buildings are often present.​

●​ Many multi-storey buildings due to high land value.​

●​ Public transport is concentrated here (buses, underground rail).​

●​ Very few residents – the area is mostly busy during the day.​
 ●​ Zoning of different functions: e.g. shoe shops located near other clothing or legal
services.​

●​ Vertical zoning is common – shops on the ground floor, offices above.​

●​ Large numbers of pedestrians.​

●​ Pedestrianised streets are common.​

Examples:

●​ Fig. 2.25: CBD of Cape Town, South Africa – tall buildings in center, lower ones
outside.​

●​ Fig. 2.26: Old CBD buildings in Tallinn, Estonia.​

●​ Fig. 2.27: Modest CBD in Barrow-in-Furness, England.​

Development of the CBD

Reasons:

●​ Often the original ‘core’ of the settlement – oldest part of the town.​

●​ Roads from outskirts converge here – makes it the most accessible location.​

●​ Ideal location for shops and services due to foot traffic.​

●​ High demand causes high land prices, leading to taller buildings to maximise space.​

Examples:

●​ Fig. 2.28: Harrods, a famous store in London.​

●​ Fig. 2.29: British Parliament – government building in the CBD.​

Residential Areas

High-Density Housing:

●​ Small dwellings, little open space.​

●​ Often close to city center.​

 ●​ Includes old buildings (terraced housing in Europe) or newer flats.​

Examples:

●​ Fig. 2.30: High-density housing in Granada, Spain – old style.​

●​ Fig. 2.31: High-density modern housing in Cartagena, Colombia.​

Low-Density Housing:

●​ Fewer dwellings per km², with open space or gardens.​

●​ More modern, further from the city center.​

Settlement and Urbanisation

Flats (Apartments)

- Multi-storey buildings with multiple units

- Found in various parts of cities

- Can be high-quality and expensive, but may not suit families with children

- Also called condominiums (condos) when units are privately owned

Shanty Houses

- Informal settlements built with available materials (plastic, metal, cardboard)

- Lack basic services like water and sanitation

- Common in LEDCs, often on city outskirts

- Examples: favelas (South America), bustees (Asia)

Open Spaces

- Planned in MEDCs (parks, sports grounds)

- Less maintained in LEDCs

- Protected by planning regulations in MEDCs

Industrial Areas

- Types:
 - Older industries near railways/canals

- Port-related industries

- Newer industries on city outskirts with road access

Transport Routes

- Key for urban land use

- High-density cities favor public transport

- Compact cities vs. low-density sprawl

Urban Structures

Burgess's Concentric Zone Model (1925)

1. CBD: Central business district, highest land value

2. Manufacturing Zone: Adjacent to CBD

3. Inner-City Housing: Cheap, close to jobs

4. Outer Zones: Affluent areas, farther from center

Hoyt's Sector Model (1939)

- Land use sectors along transport routes

- High-class residential areas avoid industry

LEDC Urban Structure

- High-class housing near center, low-class on periphery

- Example: Latin American cities with colonial CBDs

Urban Problems

CBD Issues

- Decline due to:

- Online shopping

- High rents

- Poor accessibility/parking

- Solutions:
 - Pedestrianization

- Shopping malls

- Visual improvements (parks, cafés)

Squatter Settlements

- Problems:

- No land rights

- Poor housing, sanitation, employment

- Solutions:

- Low-cost housing

- Self-help schemes

- Basic service provision

Traffic Congestion (e.g., London)

- Causes:

- Historic layout

- High car use

- Rush-hour commuters

- Solutions:

- Congestion charges

- Public transport (Tube, buses)

- Integrated transport policies

Air Pollution

- Sources: Vehicles, industry, power stations

- Pollutants:

- Carbon monoxide (vehicle exhausts)

- Nitrogen dioxide (respiratory issues)

- Particulates (construction dust, diesel fumes)

Case Studies

London Transport

- Underground (Tube): Extensive network, reduces surface traffic

- Crossrail (Elizabeth Line): New railway to ease congestion

- Airports: Heathrow (busiest), Gatwick, London City

Pollution in Urban Areas

Water Pollution

- Sources:

- Untreated sewage (in both developing and developed countries)

- Industrial waste (e.g., factory discharges into rivers)

- Domestic solid waste in some developing economies

- Effects:

- Contaminated drinking water

- Diseases (e.g., diarrhea, dysentery)

- Historical examples: "dead" rivers in the 1950s (e.g., Thames)

- Solutions:

- Wastewater treatment plants

- Strict industrial regulations

Visual Pollution

- Definition: Ugly or offensive urban elements (e.g., graffiti, litter).

- Debate: Subjective perception (e.g., graffiti as art vs. vandalism).

Noise Pollution

- Sources:

- Traffic (cars, trains, aircraft)

- Factories, nightlife venues, crowded events

- Worst in: Rapidly growing cities with poor zoning.

- Solutions:

- Noise regulations (e.g., nighttime restrictions)

- Sound barriers along highways

- Separation of industrial/residential zones

Urban Sprawl

Definition

- Uncontrolled expansion of cities into rural areas.

- Common in low-density suburbs (e.g., USA, Canada).

Problems

1. *Environmental:

- Car dependency → higher emissions.

- Loss of rural character.

2. Social/Economic:

- High infrastructure costs (transport, utilities).

- Socio-economic segregation.

- Long commutes → reduced productivity.

Contrast: Europe

- Greenbelts: Protected rural zones to limit sprawl.

- Rural-Urban Fringe: Mixed land use (e.g., farms, shopping centers).

Examples

- Denver, USA: Clear zones (CBD, dense suburbs, sprawling outskirts).

- Europe: Brownfield redevelopment (e.g., repurposed factories).

Key Terms

- Brownfield: Previously developed land reused for new projects.

- Rural-Urban Fringe: Transition areas with mixed activities (e.g., airports, nature reserves).