Chapter II

Mathematical Modeling of
Control Systems

1
 2-1 INTRODUCTION
• To model dynamic systems in mathematical terms
and analyze their dynamic characteristics.
• The dynamics of many systems, whether they are
mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic,
biological, and so on, may be described in terms of
differential equations (mathematical models).
• Mathematical models in different forms
– Differential equations
– Transfer function
2
– State space equations
 Methods for modeling a
mechanical system

• Newton’s second law

• Lagrange’s method
• Hamilton’s principle
• Kane’s method

3
• State-space representations, Transfer-function
representations.
• Assumptions made in modelling, a compromise
between the simplicity of the model and the
accuracy of the results.
• Linear Systems; the principle of superposition
• Linear Time-Invariant Systems: coefficients are
constants
• Linear Time-Varying Systems: coefficients are
functions
4
 Appendix 1
• Laplace Transform

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 2-2 TRANSFER FUNCTION
• The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant,
differential equation system is defined as the ratio
of the Laplace transform of the output (response
function) to the Laplace transform of the input
(driving function) under the assumption that all
initial conditions are zero.
• Transfer function, commonly used to
characterize the input-output relationships of
components or systems.
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• Consider the linear time-invariant system with

• where y is the output of the system and x is the

input. When all initial conditions are zero, The
transfer function of this system is

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 TRANSFER FUNCTION
• The applicability of the concept of the transfer
function is limited to linear, time-invariant,
differential equation systems.
• The transfer function approach, however, is
extensively used in the analysis and design of
such systems.
• The transfer function is a mathematical model
relating the output to input variables.
• The transfer function is a property of a system,
independent of the input.
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 TRANSFER FUNCTION
• The transfer function does not provide any
information concerning the physical structure.
• If the transfer function is known, the output
can be studied.
• If the transfer function is not known, it can be
determined by experiments.
• Question:
– Why do we use Laplace transform or transfer
function to analyze the system dynamics?
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 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL
SYSTEMS
• A control system usually consists of a number
of components.
• Use block diagrams to show the functions of
components
• Block diagrams; blocks, summing points,
branch points.
• Open-loop transfer function, feedforward
transfer function, closed-loop transfer function.
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 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL
SYSTEMS
• A block diagram of a system is a pictorial
representation of the functions performed by
each component and of the flow of signals.

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• The ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to the
actuating error signal E(s) is called the open-loop
transfer function

• The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error

signal E(s) is called the feedforward transfer
function

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• The transfer function relating output C(s) to input
R(s) is called the closed-loop transfer function.

• Question: calculating the closed-loop transfer

function of this system.

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E ( s)  R( s)  C ( s)  H ( s)
E(s) A(s)
A( s )  D ( s )  E ( s )  G1 ( s )

C ( s )  A( s )  G2 ( s )

Substituting the first equation into the second one:

A( s )  D ( s )   R ( s )  C ( s )  H ( s )   G1 ( s )
Substituting the 4-th equation into the third one:

C ( s )   D( s )   R ( s )  C ( s )  H ( s )   G1 ( s )   G2 ( s )

1  H ( s)  G1 ( s)  G2 ( s)   C ( s)  G2 ( s)  D( s)  G1 ( s)  G2 ( s)  R( s)
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 G1 ( s )  G2 ( s ) G2 ( s )
C (s)   R( s)   D( s)
1  H ( s)  G1 ( s)  G2 ( s)  1  H ( s)  G1 ( s)  G2 ( s) 
Or
C (s) G1 ( s )  G2 ( s )

R( s ) 1  H ( s )  G1 ( s )  G2 ( s ) 

C ( s) G2 ( s )

D( s ) 1  H ( s )  G1 ( s )  G2 ( s ) 
• Automatic controllers. An automatic controller
compares the actual value of the plant output with
the reference input (desired value), determines the
deviation, and produces a control signal that will
reduce the deviation to zero or to a small value.

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• Classifications of Industrial Controllers
• Two-position or on-off controllers
• Proportional controllers
• Integral controllers
• Proportional-plus-integral controllers
• Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
• Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative
controllers
• They all have different forms of transfer functions.
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• Procedure for drawing a block diagram
• First write equation, then take Laplace transforms,
and represent the transformed equation in block
form.

• Block diagram reduction: Simplify into a single

block by a step-by-step arrangement.

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 Block Diagram Reduction

Moving the summing point

H2 outside

Eliminating the positive

feedback loop H1

Eliminating loop H2/G1

Eliminating the feedback loop

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E  R C
E(s) F(s) J(s)
F  E  J  G2  H1

J  F  G1  C  H 2
C  J  G2  G3
Substituting the first equation into the second one:
F  R  C  J  G2  H1
Substituting the fifth equation into the third one:

J   R  C  J  G2  H1   G1  C  H 2

G1 R (G1  H 2 )C
J 
1  G1G2 H1 1  G1G2 H1
Substituting the last equation into the fourth one:

 G1 (G1  H 2 ) 
C  G2G3   R C
1  G1G2 H1 1  G1G2 H1 

(G1  H 2 )G2G3 G1G2G3

C C  R
1  G1G2 H1 1  G1G2 H1

G1G2G3
C R
1  G1G2 H1  G1G2G3  G2G3 H 2
OR

C G1G2G3

R 1  G1G2 H1  G1G2G3  G2G3 H 2
2-4 MODELING IN STATE SPACE
• Complex systems may have multiple inputs
and multiple outputs and may be time
varying.
• Modern control theory, which is a new
approach to the analysis and design of
complex control systems, has been developed
since around 1960.

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 Modern Control Theory Versus
Conventional Control Theory.
• Conventional Control Theory is applicable
only to linear time invariant single-input,
single-output systems (SISO system).
• Modern Control Theory is applicable to
multiple-input, multiple-output systems
(MIMO systems), which may be linear or
nonlinear, time invariant or time varying.

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• The state variables of a dynamic system are the
variables making up the smallest set of variables that
determine the state of the dynamic system.
• If n state variables are needed to completely
describe the behavior of a given system, then these n
state variables can be considered the n components
of a vector x.
• The n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes
consist of the x1 axis, x2 axis,…, xn axis, where x1,
x2, …, xn are state variables, is called a state space.

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 State-Space Equations

• State equation
• Output equation
• There are r inputs u(t), and n outputs y(t),
time-invariant systems A, B, C, and D.
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• Example : Consider the
mechanical system shown in
Figure. We assume that the system
is linear. The force u(t) is the input
to the system, and the displacement
y(t) of the mass is the output.
• Questions:
– Modeling
• differential equations.
– State-Space Equations:
• state equation
• output equation pp32
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 2-5 STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION OF
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION SYSTEMS
• State-space representation of nth-order systems of linear
differential equations in which the forcing function does
not involve derivative terms.

28
 •State equation

•Output equation

Correlation between transfer functions and

state-space equations. 29
• State-space representation of nth-order systems
of linear differential equations in which the
forcing function involves derivative terms.

30
31
 2-6 LINEARIZATION OF NONLINEAR
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
• A linear system satisfies the properties of
superposition and homogeneity.
• Superposition
• When the system at rest is subjected to an
excitation x1(t), it provides a response y1(t).
Furthermore, when the system is subjected to an
excitation x2(t), it provides a corresponding
response y2(t). For a linear system, it is necessary
that the excitation x1(t) + x2(t) result in a response
y1(t) + y2(t). 32
• Homogeneity

• consider a system with an input x(t) that

results in an output y(t). Then the response
of a linear system to a constant multiple β of
an input x must be equal to the response to
the input multiplied by the same constant so
that the output is equal to βy.

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• Nonlinear Systems. The principle of
superposition does not apply.
• Linearization of Nonlinear Systems. A
normal operation may be around an
equilibrium point, and the signal considered
small signals around the equilibrium.
• Linear Approximation of Nonlinear
Mathematical Models. Expand a Taylor
series about the operating point and keep only
the linear terms.

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• Example:
Linearize the nonlinear equation:
z = x2 + 4xy + 6 y2
in the region defined by 8≤x ≤ 10, 2 ≤ y ≤ 4.
pp59

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 Example : Two Mass-Spring Oscillators
• Two carts are connected as
shown in below.
• An input force is u(t).
• The output is the position
of cart 2, that is, output
signal, y(t) = q(t).
•Question:
•Modeling: differential equations.
•state space representation of the system

By using the Generalized Lagrange method, the equations of the motion of the
system are:
   

 m1 p  k1 ( p  q)  b1 ( p  q)  u (t )
    

 m2 q  k2 q  b2 q  b1 (q  p)  k1 (q  p)  0 37
  
x1  p, x2  p, x3  q, x4  q
Let
 x1 
x 
x 
2

 x3 
 
 x4 
 

 m1 x2  k1 ( x1  x3 )  b1 ( x2  x4 )  u (t )
 

 m2 x4  k2 x3  b2 x4  b1 ( x4  x2 )  k1 ( x3  x1 )  0


 x1  x2
  k1 b1 u (t )
 2
x  ( x1  x3 )  ( x2  x4 ) 
 m1 m1 m1
 
 x3  x4
  k b b k
 x4  2 x3  2 x4  1 ( x4  x2 )  1 ( x3  x1 )  0
 38
 m2 m2 m2 m2

 x1  x2
  k1 b1 k1 b1 u (t )
 x1 
 x2   x1  x2  x3  x4 
m1 m1 m1 m1 m1
x 

x   , y  q
2
 
 x3  x4  x3 
  k b k k b b
 x4  1 x1  1 x2  1 2 x3  1 2 x4  

 m2 m2 m2 m2  x4 

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 Example : Planar Crane
• Input : trolley acceleration (bang-coast-bang)
• Output: trolley displacement and payload swing angle
• Assumptions:
– trolley is unaffected by motion of the payload due
to the large mechanical impedance in the drive
system.
– damping from air is approximately zero.
– small oscillations around the equilibrium angles
yields:
Fig 1. model of a planar crane. • Sin(θ)≈θ
• Cos(θ) ≈1

•Question:
•Modeling: differential nonlinear equations.
•Linearized equation: differential linear equations. Transfer to SS equation.
•Dynamics Analyses
•Natural frequency versus cable length, Fig. 2
•Vibration amplitude versus driving motions and cable length, Figs. 3, 4
•Conclusions 40
•Modeling: differential nonlinear equations.

l   g sin   a cos 
•Linearized equation: differential linear equations. Transfer to SS equation.

l   g  a
•Dynamics Analyses
Natural frequency   g /l
Natural frequency decreases with increasing cable length.
Program a c++/matlab code for simulating the dynamical process.
Peaks and troughs arise as the driving distances change because the
oscillations induced by the accelerations and decelerations are out of phase
or in phase.
•Conclusions
•Cable length has a large influence on the dynamics.
TERMS AND CONCEPTS

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• Actuator
– The device that causes the process to provide the output. The
device that provides the motive power to the process.
• Analogous variables
– Variables associated with electrical, mechanical, thermal, and fluid
systems possessing similar solutions providing the analyst with the
ability to extend the solution of one system to all analogous
systems with the same describing differential equations.
• Assumptions
– Statements that reflect situations and conditions that are taken for
granted and without proof. In control systems, assumptions are
often employed to simplify the physical dynamical models of
systems under consideration to make the control design problem
more tractable.
• Characteristic equation
– The relation formed by equating to zero the denominator of a
transfer function. 43
• Closed-loop transfer function
• A ratio of the output signal to the input signal for an interconnection
of systems when all the feedback or feedfoward loops have been
closed or otherwise accounted for. Generally obtained by block
diagram or signal-flow graph reduction.
• Coulomb damper
• A type of mechanical damper where the model of the friction force is
a nonlinear function of the mass velocity and possesses a discontinuity
around zero velocity. Also know as dry friction.
• Critical damping
• The case where damping is on the boundary between underdamped
and overdamped.
• Damped oscillation
• An oscillation in which the amplitude decreases with time.
• Damping ratio
• A measure of damping. A dimensionless number for the second-order
characteristic equation.
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• DC motor
– An electric actuator that uses an input voltage as a control variable.
• Differential equation
– An equation including differentials of a function.
• Error signal
– The difference between the desired output R and the actual output
Y; therefore E= R- Y.
• Final value
– The value that the output achieves after all the transient
constituents of the response have faded. Also referred to as the
steady-state value.
• Homogeneity
– The property of a linear system in which the system response, y, to
an input u leads to the response ay when the input is au.
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• Inverse Laplace transform
– A transformation of a function F(s) from the complex frequency
domain into the time domain yielding f(t).
• Laplace transform
– A transformation of a function f(t) from the time domain into the
complex frequency domain yielding F(s).
• Linear approximation
– An approximate model that results in a linear relationship between
the output and the input of the device.
• Linear system
– A system that satisfies the properties of superposition and
homogeneity.
• Linearized
– Made linear or placed in a linear form. Taylor series
approximations are commonly employed to obtain linear models of
physical systems.
• Loop
– A closed path that originates and terminates on the same node 46
of a
signal-flow graph with no node being met twice along the path.
• Mathematical models
– Descriptions of the behavior of a system using mathematics.
• Natural frequency
– The frequency of natural oscillation that would occur for two
complex poles if the damping were equal to zero.
• Overdamped
– The case where the damping ratio is £ > 1.
• Poles
– The roots of the denominator polynomial (i.e., the roots of the
characteristic equation) of the transfer function.
• Reference input
– The input to a control system often representing the desired output,
denoted by R(s).

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• Simulation
– A model of a system that is used to investigate the behavior of a
system by utilizing actual input signals.
• Steady state
– The value that the output achieves after all the transient
constituents of the response have faded. Also referred to as the
final value.
• Transfer function
– The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to the
Laplace transform of the input variable.
• Underdamped
– The case where the damping ratio is f < 1.
• Unity feedback
– A feedback control system wherein the gain of the feedback loop is
one.

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