Nervous System

Cranial nerves:
• These carry impulses between the brain and head and neck.
• The one exception is 10th cranial nerve, called Vagus nerve.
• It carries messages to and from neck, chest, and abdomen.
• There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves.

Cranial Nerve Name Function Type of Nerve

I Olfactory Smell Sensory
II Optic Vision Sensory
III Oculomotor Eye Movement Motor
IV Trochlear Eye Movement Motor
V Trigeminal Forehead and Scalp Sensation, Mixed
Cheek Sensation, Chewing
VI Abducens Eye Movement Motor
VII Facial Face and Scalp Movement, Taste, Mixed
Ear Sensation
VIII Vestibulocochlear Hearing, Balance Sensory
IX Glossopharyngeal Tongue and Throat Sensation, Mixed
Throat Movement
X Vagus Peristalsis, BP, Heart Rate, Mixed
Coughing, Sneezing
XI Accessory (spinal Swallowing, Head and Shoulder Motor
accessory) Movements
XII Hypoglossal Speech, Swallowing Motor

• Nerves carry electrical impulses from one place to another.

• Nervous system is divided into 2 major categories:
1. Central Nervous System and
2. Peripheral Nervous System.

• Central Nervous System consists of Brain and Spinal Cord.

• Peripheral Nervous System consists of Cranial Nerves, Spinal Nerves, Plexuses, and
Peripheral Nerves which are divided into Somatic (Voluntary) and Autonomic
(Involuntary) Nerves.

Somatic Nervous System consists of Cranial Nerves and Spinal Nerves.

Autonomic Nervous System consists of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nerves.

Page 1 of 9
Based on the movement and sensation, these nerves are divided into following:
Nerves – motor (movement) and sensory (sensations)
Motor – also called as efferent nerves
From CNS impulses are carried to all body parts

Sensory - also called as afferent nerves

These carry messages related to the changes in the environment (Sense organs) towards the
brain and spinal cord.

Motor nerves:
• These are also called as efferent nerves.
• They carry impulses from CNS to the body parts.

Sensory nerves:
• These are also called as afferent nerves.
• They carry impulses from sense organs to brain and spinal cord.

Mixed nerves:
• These act as both motor and sensory nerves.

Peripheral Nervous System –

• Somatic (Cranial and Spinal Nerves) and
• autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
• Plexus: large network of nerves in PNS.
Cervical plexus, Brachial plexus, Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses.

Spinal nerves:
• 31 pairs.
• These carry impulses or messages between spinal cord and chest, abdomen, and
extremities.
Cauda equina – bundle of spinal nerves between the end of spinal cord.
Sciatic nerve – nerve beginning in the region of hip.

Page 2 of 9
Femoral nerve – lumbar nerve leading to and from thigh (femur).

Autonomic Nerve system:

• This system of nerve fibers carries impulses away from CNS to glands, heart, blood
vessels.
• Involuntary muscles found in the walls of tubes like intestines and hollow organs like
stomach and urinary bladder.
Types of ANS
1. Sympathetic nerves: These nerves stimulate body in times of stress and crisis.
2. Parasympathetic nerves: These normally act as balance for sympathetic nerves.
1.

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
1. Pupils dilated 1. Pupils constricted
2. Salivation inhibited 2. Salivation stimulated
3. Increased respiration 3. Decreased respiration
4. Bronchial passages dilated 4. Bronchial passages constricted
5. Increased heart rate 5. Decreased heart rate
6. Digestion inhibited 6. Digestion stimulated
7. Bladder muscles relaxed 7. Bladder muscles contracted
8. Increased secretion by sweat glands
9. Hair follicles raised, goose bumps
10. Secretion of adrenal hormones

Neurons, nerves, and Glial cells

Neuron:

• Nerve Cell that carries impulses throughout the body.

Dendrites:

• Microscopic branching fibers of a nerve cell that is the 1st part to receive the
nervous impulse.
Cell body:

• Part of nerve cell that contains the nucleus.

Axon:

• Microscopic fiber that carries the nervous impulse along a nerve cell. Axons are
covered with fatty tissue called myelin sheath.

Page 3 of 9
 Myelin Sheath:

• Covering of white fatty tissue that surrounds and insulates the axon of a nerve cell.
• Myelin speeds impulse conduction along axons.
• Gap between myelin sheath is called as nodes of Ranvier.
White matter –

• myelin sheath gives white appearance to nerve fibers.

Gray matter –

• brain and spinal cord is composed of cell bodies of neurons that appear gray
because they are not covered by myelin sheath.
Synapse:

• space where nervous impulse jump from one neuron to another neuron.
• Transfer of impulse across the synapse depends on release of chemical substance,
called as neurotransmitter, by the neuron that brings the impulse to synapse.
• Examples of neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine
(adrenaline), dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins.

Glial Cells:

• Do not transmit impulses.

These are 4 types:
1. Astrocytes (astroglial cells): star-like appearance and transport water and salts
between capillaries and neurons.
2. Microglial cells: protect neurons in response to inflammation.
3. Oligodendroglial cells (oligodendrocytes): these cells form myelin sheath in CNS
4. Ependymal cells: line membranes within the brain and spinal cord where CSF is
produced and circulates.

Blood-Brain Barrier:
• There is protective barrier between brain and blood cells called blood-brain barrier.
• This prevents potentially harmful substances from blood into the brain cells.
• This consists of special lining of endothelial cells along with astrocytes.

Brain: 3 parts
1. Fore brain (cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus)
2. Mid brain (eye movement function)
3. Hind brain (cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata).

Page 4 of 9
Cerebrum:

• largest part of the brain (thinking area).

• Outer portion of cerebrum is called as cerebral cortex.
• Gyri (ridges): sheet of nerve cells that produces a rounded ridge on the surface of
the cerebral cortex.
• Sulci (grooves): depression or groove in the surface of the cerebral cortex.
Cerebral hemispheres:

• The brain is divided in half, a right side, and a left side.

• Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes – frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
lobes.
• Corpus callosum – divides the cerebrum into right and left hemispheres. It gives
communication between 2 hemispheres.

• In the middle of cerebrum are spaces or canals, called Ventricles.

• They contain watery fluid that flows throughout the brain and around the spinal cord.
This fluid is called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• It protects the brain and spinal cord from shock by acting like a cushion.
Function of cerebrum:

• Thought, Judgement, Memory, Association, and Discrimination.

• They are basis for Perception.
• Cerebral cortex control speech, vision, smell, movement, hearing, and thought
processes.

Thalamus:

• It acts like a triage center.

• It decides what is important and selectively process the sensory information to
cerebral cortex.
• It plays major role in maintaining levels of awareness and consciousness.

Hypothalamus:

• It controls body temperature, sleep, appetite, sexual desire, and emotions such as
fear and pleasure.
• It also regulates release of hormones from pituitary gland at base of the brain and
integrates activities of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.

Page 5 of 9
 Cerebellum:

• Posterior part of the brain that coordinate voluntary movements and to maintain
balance and posture.
Pons:

• Part of the brain anterior to the cerebellum and between the medulla and the rest
of the midbrain.
• It is a bridge connecting various parts of the brain.
• It contains nerve fiber tracts that connect cerebellum and cerebrum with rest of
brain. Nerves to eyes and face lie here.
Medulla oblongata:

• Part of the brain just above the spinal cord.

• It controls breathing, heartbeat, and the size of blood vessels.
• Nerve tracts cross from right to left and left to right in medulla oblongata.
• It contains 3 important vital centers that regulate internal activities of body.
1. Respiratory center – controls muscles of respiration in response to chemicals
or other stimuli.
2. Cardiac center – slows heart rate when heart is beating too rapidly.
3. Vasomotor center – constricts or dilates muscles in walls of blood vessels thus
influencing blood pressure.

Spinal cord:
• Gray matter – inner region – contains cell bodies and dendrites.
• White matter - outer region - contains nerve fiber tracts with myelin sheaths.
• Meninges: three protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord.
1. Dura matter – thick, outermost layer of the meninges surrounding and
protecting the brain and spinal cord.
2. Arachnoid membrane – middle layer of 3 meninges that surround the brain and
spinal cord.
3. Pia matter – thin, delicate inner membrane of meninges. Contains rich supply
of blood vessels.

Terminology
Cerebello – cerebellum Encephalo – brain
Cerebro – cerebrum Glio – glial cells
Duro – dura matter Lepto – thin, slender

Page 6 of 9
Meningo or meningio – membranes, Comato – deep sleep (coma)
meninges
Esthesio or esthesia – feeling, nervous
Myo – muscle sensation
Myelo – spinal cord Kineso, kinesio, kinesia, kinesis, kinetic –
movement
Neuro – nerve
Lepsy – seizure
Ponto – pons
Lexo – word, phrase
Radiculo – nerve root
Paresis – weakness
Thalamo – thalamus
Phasia – speech
Theco – sheath
Plegia – paralysis
Vago – vagus nerve
Praxia – action
Algeso or algesia – excessive sensitivity to
pain Sthenia – strength
Algia – pain Syncopo – to cut off, cut short
Causo – burning Taxo – order, coordination

Pathology
Congenital disorders
1. Hydrocephalus: abnormal accumulation of fluid (CSF) in the brain.
2. Spina bifida: congenital defects in the lumbar spinal column caused by imperfect
union of vertebral parts.
3. Huntington disease: hereditary disorder marked by degenerative changes in the
cerebrum leading to abrupt involuntary movements and mental deterioration.
4. Multiple sclerosis: destruction of myelin sheath on neurons in the CNS and its
replacement by plaques of sclerotic tissue.
5. Myasthenia gravis (MG): autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by
weakness of voluntary muscles.
6. Palsy: paralysis (partial or complete loss of motor function).
7. Parkinson disease (parkinsonism): degeneration of neurons in the basal ganglia
occurring in later life and leading to tremors, weakness of muscles, and slowness of
movements.
8. Tourette syndrome: involuntary, spasmodic, twitching movements; uncontrollable
vocal sounds; and inappropriate words.

Page 7 of 9
Degenerative, Movement, and Seizure Disorders
1. Alzheimer disease (AD): Brain disorder marked by gradual and progressive mental
deterioration (dementia), personality changes, and impairment of daily
functioning.
2. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): degenerative disorder of motor neurons in
the spinal cord and brainstem. Also called as Lou Gehrig disease.
3. Epilepsy: chronic brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizure activity.
a. Tonic-clonic seizures (grand mal or ictal events) – sudden loss of consciousness,
falling down, and then tonic contractions (stiffening of muscles) followed by
clonic contractions (twitching and jerking movements of the limbs).
b. Absence seizures – form of seizure consisting of momentary clouding of
consciousness and loss of awareness of the person’s surroundings. These
include petit mal seizures in children.
Infectious disorders
1. Herpes Zoster (Shingles): Viral infection affecting peripheral nerves.
2. Meningitis: inflammation of meninges. This condition can be caused by bacteria
(pyogenic meningitis) or virus (aseptic or viral meningitis).
3. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Encephalopathy: brain disease and
dementia occurring with AIDS.
Neoplastic disorders
1. Brain tumor: abnormal growth of brain tissue and meninges.
Traumatic Disorders
1. Cerebral Concussion: type of traumatic brain injury caused by a blow to the head.
2. Cerebral Contusion: bruising of brain tissue as a result of direct trauma to the
head.
Vascular Disorders
1. Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA): disruption in the normal blood supply to the
brain;
2. Stroke. This condition also known as cerebral infarction. There are 3 types of
strokes: thrombotic, embolic, and hemorrhagic.
3. Migraine: severe, recurring, unilateral, vascular headache.

Laboratory Tests
Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis: samples of CSF are examined.

Page 8 of 9
Clinical Procedures
1. Cerebral angiography: x-ray imaging of the arterial blood vessels in the brain after
injection of contrast material.
2. Computed tomography (CT) of the brain: computerized x-ray technique that
generates multiple images of the brain and spinal cord.
3. Magnetic resonance imaging(MRI): magnetic field and pulses of radiowave energy
create images of the brain and spinal cord. MRA (magnetic resonance angiography)
produces images of blood vessels using magnetic resonance technique.
4. Positron emission tomography (PET) scan: radioactive glucose is injected and then
detected in the brain to image the metabolic activity of cells.
5. Doppler Ultrasound Studies: sound waves detect blood flow in the carotid and
intracranial arteries.
6. Electroencephalography (EEG): recording of the electrical activity of brain.
7. Lumbar puncture (LP): CSF is withdrawn from between 2 lumbar vertebrae for
analysis.
8. Stereotactic radiosurgery: Use of a specialized instrument to locate and treat targets
in the brain.
………………………………………………………………………… xxx ………………………………….. …………………………

Page 9 of 9