lOMoARcPSD|27739474

Oscillators module-2 - notes

Introduction to Electronics and communication (Visvesvaraya Technological University)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

CHAPTER 8
Operational amplifiers
Chapter summary
Operational amplifiers are analogue integrated circuits designed for linear
amplification that offer near-ideal characteristics (virtually infinite voltage
gain and input resistance coupled with low output resistance and wide
bandwidth).
Operational amplifiers can be thought of as universal ‘gain blocks’ to which
external components are added in order to define their function within
a circuit. By adding two resistors, we can produce an amplifier having a
precisely defined gain. Alternatively, with two resistors and two capacitors
we can produce a simple band-pass filter. From this you might begin to
suspect that operational amplifiers are really easy to use. The good news is
that they are!

Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals and applications. 978-1-138-82892-6. © Mike Tooley.

Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.

Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

Symbols and connections

The symbol for an operational amplifier is shown
in Fig. 8.2. There are a few things to note about
this. The device has two inputs and one output
and no common connection. Furthermore, we
often don’t show the supply connections – it
is often clearer to leave them out of the circuit
altogether!
In Fig. 8.2, one of the inputs is marked ‘−’ and the
other is marked ‘+’. These polarity markings have
nothing to do with the supply connections – they
indicate the overall phase shift between each Figure 8.1 A typical operational amplifier. This
input and the output. The ‘+’ sign indicates zero device is supplied in an eight-pin dual-in-line (DIL)
phase shift while the ‘−’ sign indicates 180° phase package. It has a JFET input stage and produces a
shift. Since 180° phase shift produces an inverted typical open-loop voltage gain of 200,000
waveform, the ‘−’ input is often referred to as the
inverting input. Similarly, the ‘+’ input is known
as the non-inverting input.
Most (but not all) operational amplifiers require
a symmetrical supply (of typically ±6 V to ±15 V)
which allows the output voltage to swing both
positive (above 0 V) and negative (below 0 V).
Fig. 8.3 shows how the supply connections would
appear if we decided to include them. Note that Figure 8.2 Symbol for an operational amplifier
we usually have two separate supplies; a positive
supply and an equal, but opposite, negative
supply. The common connection to these two
supplies (i.e. the 0 V supply connection) acts as
the common rail in our circuit. The input and
output voltages are usually measured relative to
this rail.

Operational amplifier parameters

Before we take a look at some of the
characteristics of ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ operational
amplifiers it is important to define some of the
terms and parameters that we apply to these Figure 8.3 Supply connections for an operational
devices. amplifier

Open-loop voltage gain

Open-loop voltage gain may thus be thought of as
The open-loop voltage gain of an operational the ‘internal’ voltage gain of the device, thus:
amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage
VOUT
to input voltage measured with no feedback AV(OL) =
VIN
applied. In practice, this value is exceptionally
high (typically greater than 100,000) but is liable to where AV(OL) is the open-loop voltage gain,
considerable variation from one device to another. VOUT and VIN are the output and input voltages,
respectively, under open-loop conditions.
161
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

In linear voltage amplifying applications, a large Thus:

amount of negative feedback will normally be 2 2 × 106
AV(CL) = = = 5,000
applied and the open-loop voltage gain can be 400 × 10 6
−
400
thought of as the internal voltage gain provided by
the device. Expressed in decibels (rather than as a ratio) this is:
AV(CL) = 20log10 (5,000) = 20 × 3.7 = 74 dB
The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in
decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio. In this case:
VOUT Input resistance
AV(OL) = 20log10
VIN The input resistance of an operational amplifier
is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input
Most operational amplifiers have open-loop
current expressed in ohms. It is often expedient
voltage gains of 90 dB or more.
to assume that the input of an operational
Closed-loop voltage gain amplifier is purely resistive, though this is not the
case at high frequencies where shunt capacitive
The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational
reactance may become significant. The input
amplifier is defined as the ratio of output
resistance of operational amplifiers is very much
voltage to input voltage measured with a small
dependent on the semiconductor technology
proportion of the output fed-back to the input
employed. In practice values range from about
(i.e. with feedback applied). The effect of
2 MΩ for common bipolar types to over 1012 Ω for
providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop
FET and CMOS devices.
voltage gain to a value that is both predictable
and manageable. Practical closed-loop voltage Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to
gains range from one to several thousand but input current:
note that high values of voltage gain may make VIN
RIN =
unacceptable restrictions on bandwidth (see later). IIN
Closed-loop voltage gain is once again the ratio of where RIN is the input resistance (in ohms), VIN
output voltage to input voltage but with negative is the input voltage (in volts) and IIN is the input
feedback applied, hence: current (in amps). Note that we usually assume
VOUT that the input of an operational amplifier is purely
AV(CL) =
VIN resistive though this may not be the case at high
frequencies where shunt capacitive reactance
where AV(CL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT and
may become significant.
VIN are the output and input voltages, respectively,
under closed-loop conditions. The closed-loop The input resistance of operational amplifiers
voltage gain is normally very much less than the is very much dependent on the semiconductor
open-loop voltage gain. technology employed. In practice, values range
from about 2 MΩ for bipolar operational amplifiers
Example 8.1 to over 1012 Ω for CMOS devices.
An operational amplifier operating with negative
Example 8.2
feedback produces an output voltage of 2 V when
supplied with an input of 400 µV. Determine the An operational amplifier has an input resistance of
value of closed-loop voltage gain. 2 MΩ. Determine the input current when an input
voltage of 5 mV is present.
Solution
Solution
Now:
Now:
VOUT
AV(CL) = VIN
VIN RIN =
IIN

162
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

thus constant). Typical full-power bandwidths range

V 5 × 10 3
− from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz for some high-speed
IIN = IN = = 2.5 × 10 9 A = 2.5 nA
−

devices.
RIN 2 × 106
Slew rate
Output resistance Slew rate is the rate of change of output voltage
The output resistance of an operational amplifier with time, when a rectangular step input voltage
is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output is applied (as shown in Fig. 8.4). The slew rate of
voltage to short-circuit output current expressed an operational amplifier is the rate of change of
in ohms. Typical values of output resistance range output voltage with time in response to a perfect
from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω, depending step-function input. Hence:
upon the configuration and amount of feedback DVOUT
employed. Slew rate =
Dt
Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit
output voltage to short-circuit output current, where DVOUT is the change in output voltage (in
hence: volts) and Dt is the corresponding interval of time
V (in seconds).
ROUT = OUT(OC) Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/µs) and typical
IOUT(SC)
values range from 0.2 V/µs to over 20 V/µs. Slew
where ROUT is the output resistance (in ohms), rate imposes a limitation on circuits in which large
VOUT(OC) is the open-circuit output voltage (in volts) amplitude pulses rather than small amplitude
and IOUT(SC) is the short-circuit output current (in sinusoidal signals are likely to be encountered.
amps).

Input offset voltage Operational amplifier

characteristics
An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero
output voltage when 0 V difference is applied to Having defined the parameters that we use to
its inputs. In practice, due to imperfect internal describe operational amplifiers we shall now
balance, there may be some small voltage present
at the output. The voltage that must be applied
differentially to the operational amplifier input in
order to make the output voltage exactly zero is
known as the input offset voltage.
Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying
relatively large amounts of negative feedback
or by using the offset null facility provided by a
number of operational amplifier devices. Typical
values of input offset voltage range from 1 mV
to 15 mV. Where a.c. rather than d.c. coupling
is employed, offset voltage is not normally a
problem and can be happily ignored.

Full-power bandwidth
The full-power bandwidth for an operational
amplifier is equivalent to the frequency at which
the maximum undistorted peak output voltage
swing falls to 0.707 of its low-frequency (d.c.)
value (the sinusoidal input voltage remaining
Figure 8.4 Slew rate for an operational amplifier
163
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

consider the desirable characteristics for an ‘ideal’ Solution

operational amplifier. These are: The slew rate can be determined from:
(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high DVOUT 10 V
(ideally infinite). Slew rate = = = 2.5 V /µs
Dt 4 µs
(b) The input resistance should be very high
(ideally infinite).
Example 8.4
(c) The output resistance should be very low
(ideally zero). A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate
(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as of 15 V/µs. If the amplifier is used in a circuit with
possible. a voltage gain of 20 and a perfect step input of
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible. 100 mV is applied to its input, determine the time
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible. taken for the output to change level.
The characteristics of most modern integrated Solution
circuit operational amplifiers (i.e. ‘real’ operational
The output voltage change will be 20 × 100 =
amplifiers) come very close to those of an ‘ideal’
2,000 mV (or 2 V). Re-arranging the formula for
operational amplifier, as witnessed by the data
slew rate gives:
shown in Table 8.1.
DVOUT 2V
Dt = = = 0.133 µs
Table 8.1 Comparison of operational amplifier Slew rate 15 V/µs
parameters for ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices
Parameter Ideal Real Operational amplifier
Voltage gain Infinite 100,000 applications
Input resistance Infinite 100 MΩ
Table 8.2 shows abbreviated data for some
Output resistance Zero 20 Ω
common types of integrated circuit operational
Bandwidth Infinite 2 MHz
amplifier together with some typical applications.
Slew rate Infinite 10 V/µs
Input offset Zero Less than 5 mV Example 8.5
Which of the operational amplifiers in Table 8.2
Example 8.3 would be most suitable for each of the following
A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input applications:
of an operational amplifier. If it takes 4 µs for (a) amplifying the low-level output from a
the output voltage to change from –5 V to +5 V, piezoelectric vibration sensor
determine the slew rate of the device. (b) a high-gain amplifier that can be used to
faithfully amplify very small signals

Table 8.2 Some common examples of integrated circuit operational amplifiers

Device Type Open-loop Input bias Slew rate Application
voltage gain (dB) current (V/µs)
AD548 Bipolar 100 min. 0.01 nA 1.8 Instrumentation amplifier
AD711 FET 100 25 pA 20 Wideband amplifier
CA3140 CMOS 100 5 pA 9 Low-noise wideband amplifier
LF347 FET 110 50 pA 13 Wideband amplifier
LM301 Bipolar 88 70 nA 0.4 General-purpose operational amplifier
LM348 Bipolar 96 30 nA 0.6 General-purpose operational amplifier
TL071 FET 106 30 pA 13 Wideband amplifier
741 Bipolar 106 80 pA 0.5 General-purpose operational amplifier

164
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

(c) a low-frequency amplifier for audio signals.

Solution
(a) AD548 (this operational amplifier is designed
for use in instrumentation applications and it
offers a very low input offset current which
is important when the input is derived from a
piezoelectric transducer).
(b) CA3140 (this is a low-noise operational
amplifier that also offers high gain and fast
slew rate).
(c) LM348 or LM741 (both are general-purpose
operational amplifiers and are ideal for non-
critical applications such as audio amplifiers).
Figure 8.5 Frequency response curves for an
Gain and bandwidth operational amplifier

It is important to note that the product of gain

Table 8.3 Corresponding values of voltage gain
and bandwidth is a constant for any particular
and bandwidth for an operational amplifier with a
operational amplifier. Hence, an increase in
gain × bandwidth product of 1 × 106
gain can only be achieved at the expense of
bandwidth, and vice versa. Voltage gain (AV) Bandwidth

Fig. 8.5 shows the relationship between voltage 1 d.c. to 1 MHz

gain and bandwidth for a typical operational 10 d.c. to 100 kHz
amplifier (note that the axes use logarithmic 100 d.c. to 10 kHz
rather than linear scales). The open-loop voltage 1,000 d.c. to 1 kHz
gain (i.e. that obtained with no feedback applied) 10,000 d.c. to 100 Hz
is 100,000 (or 100 dB) and the bandwidth 100,000 d.c. to 10 Hz
obtained in this condition is a mere 10 Hz. The
effect of applying increasing amounts of negative
feedback (and consequently reducing the gain Inverting amplifier with
to a more manageable amount) is that the feedback
bandwidth increases in direct proportion. Fig. 8.6 shows the circuit of an inverting amplifier
The frequency response curves in Fig. 8.5 show with negative feedback applied. For the sake
the effect on the bandwidth of making the closed- of our explanation we will assume that the
loop gains equal to 10,000, 1,000, 100, and 10. operational amplifier is ‘ideal’. Now consider what
Table 8.3 summarizes these results. You should happens when a small positive input voltage is
also note that the (gain × bandwidth) product for applied. This voltage (VIN) produces a current (IIN)
this amplifier is 1 × 106 Hz (i.e. 1 MHz). flowing in the input resistor R1.
We can determine the bandwidth of the amplifier Since the operational amplifier is ‘ideal’ we will
when the closed-loop voltage gain is set to 46 dB assume that:
by constructing a line and noting the intercept (a) the input resistance (i.e. the resistance that
point on the response curve. This shows that appears between the inverting and non-
the bandwidth will be 10 kHz (note that, for this inverting input terminals, RIC) is infinite
operational amplifier, the (gain × bandwidth) (b) the open-loop voltage gain (i.e. the ratio of VOUT
product is 2 × 106 Hz (or 2 MHz). to VIN with no feedback applied) is infinite.
As a consequence of (a) and (b):

165
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

shall refer to the input resistance as RIN and

the feedback resistance as RF (instead of the
more general and less meaningful R1 and R2,
respectively).

Operational amplifier
configurations
The three basic configurations for operational
Figure 8.6 Operational amplifier with negative
voltage amplifiers, together with the expressions
feedback applied
for their voltage gain, are shown in Fig. 8.7.
Supply rails have been omitted from these
(i) the voltage appearing between the inverting diagrams for clarity but are assumed to be
and non-inverting inputs (VIC) will be zero, and symmetrical about 0 V.
(ii) the current flowing into the chip (IIC) will be
All of the amplifier circuits described previously
zero (recall that IIC = VIC /RIC and RIC is infinite)
have used direct coupling and thus have
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law at node A
frequency response characteristics that extend
gives:
to d.c. This, of course, is undesirable for many
IIN = IIC + IF but IIC = 0 thus IIN = IF (1) applications, particularly where a wanted a.c.
(this shows that the current in the feedback signal may be superimposed on an unwanted
resistor, R2, is the same as the input current, IIN ). d.c. voltage level or when the bandwidth of the
Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to loop A gives: amplifier greatly exceeds that of the signal that it
VIN = (IIN × R1) + VIC is required to amplify. In such cases, capacitors
but VIC = 0 thus VIN = IIN × R1 (2) of appropriate value may be inserted in series
with the input resistor, RIN, and in parallel with the
Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in loop B gives:
feedback resistor, RF, as shown in Fig. 8.8.
VOUT = –VIC + (IF × R2)
The value of the input and feedback capacitors,
but VIC = 0 thus VOUT = IF × R2 (3)
CIN and CF respectively, are chosen so as to roll-
Combining (1) and (3) gives: off the frequency response of the amplifier at
VOUT = IIN × R2 (4) the desired lower and upper cut-off frequencies,
The voltage gain of the stage is given by: respectively. The effect of these two capacitors
VOUT on an operational amplifier’s frequency response
Av = (5) is shown in Fig. 8.9.
VIN
By selecting appropriate values of capacitor, the
Combining (4) and (2) with (5) gives: frequency response of an inverting operational
IIN × R 2 R 2 voltage amplifier may be very easily tailored to
Av = =
IIN × R1 R1 suit a particular set of requirements.
The lower cut-off frequency is determined by
To preserve symmetry and minimize offset
the value of the input capacitance, CIN, and input
voltage, a third resistor is often included in
resistance, RIN. The lower cut-off frequency is
series with the non-inverting input. The value of
given by:
this resistor should be equivalent to the parallel
1 0.159
combination of R1 and R2. Hence: f1 = =
2πCINRIN CINRIN
R1× R 2
R3 =
R1+ R 2 where f1 is the lower cut-off frequency in hertz,
CIN is in farads and RIN is in ohms.
From this point onwards (and to help you
remember the function of the resistors) we Provided the upper frequency response it not
limited by the gain × bandwidth product, the
166
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

Figure 8.9 Effect of adding capacitors, CIN and

CF, to modify the frequency response of an
operational amplifier

upper cut-off frequency will be determined by

the feedback capacitance, CF, and feedback
resistance, RF, such that:
1 0.159
f2 = =
2πC FRF C FRF

where f2 is the upper cut-off frequency in hertz, CF

is in farads and R2 is in ohms.

Example 8.6
An inverting operational amplifier is to operate
according to the following specification:
Voltage gain = 100
Input resistance (at mid-band) = 10 kΩ
Lower cut-off frequency = 250 Hz
Figure 8.7 The three basic configurations for Upper cut-off frequency = 15 kHz
operational voltage amplifiers Devise a circuit to satisfy the above specification
using an operational amplifier.

Solution
To make things a little easier, we can break
the problem down into manageable parts. We
shall base our circuit on a single operational
amplifier configured as an inverting amplifier with
capacitors to define the upper and lower cut-off
frequencies, as shown in Fig. 8.9.
The nominal input resistance is the same as the
value for RIN. Thus:
RIN = 10 kΩ
Figure 8.8 Adding capacitors to modify the
To determine the value of RF we can make use of
frequency response of an inverting operational
the formula for mid-band voltage gain:
amplifier
R2
Av =
R1
167
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

thus R2 = Av × R1 = 100 × 10 kΩ = 100 kΩ number of other uses, including voltage followers,

To determine the value of CIN we will use the differentiators, integrators, comparators and
formula for the low-frequency cut-off: summing amplifiers. We shall conclude this section
0.159 by taking a brief look at each of these applications.
f1 =
CINRIN Voltage followers
from which: A voltage follower using an operational amplifier
0.159 0.159 is shown in Fig. 8.11. This circuit is essentially an
CIN = =
inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output
f1RIN 250 × 10 × 103
is fed back to the input. The result is an amplifier
hence: that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high
0.159 input resistance and a very high output resistance.
CIN = = 63 × 10 9 F = 63 nF
−

2.5 × 106 This stage is often referred to as a buffer and is

used for matching a high-impedance circuit to a
Finally, to determine the value of CF we will use
low-impedance circuit.
the formula for high-frequency cut-off:
Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage
0.159
f2 = follower are shown in Fig. 8.12. Notice how the
C FRF
input and output waveforms are both in-phase
from which: (they rise and fall together) and that they are
0.159 0.159 identical in amplitude.
CF = =
f2RIN 15 × 103 × 100 × 103

hence:
0.159
CF = = 0.106 × 10 9 F = 106 pF
−

1.5 × 109
For most applications the nearest preferred values
(68 nF for CIN and 100 pF for CF) would be
perfectly adequate. The complete circuit of the
operational amplifier stage is shown in Fig. 8.10.
Figure 8.11 A voltage follower

Operational amplifier circuits

As well as their application as a general-purpose
amplifying device, operational amplifiers have a

Figure 8.10 See Example 8.6. This operational

amplifier has a mid-band voltage gain of 10 over Figure 8.12 Typical input and output waveforms
the frequency range 250 Hz to 15 kHz for a voltage follower
168
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

Differentiators opposite function to that of a differentiator (see

A differentiator using an operational amplifier earlier) in that its output is equivalent to the area
is shown in Fig. 8.13. A differentiator produces under the graph of the input function rather than
an output voltage that is equivalent to the rate its rate of change. If the input voltage remains
of change of its input. This may sound a little constant (and is other than 0 V) the output voltage
complex but it simply means that if the input will ramp up or down according to the polarity of
voltage remains constant (i.e. if it isn’t changing) the input. The longer the input voltage remains
the output also remains constant. The faster the at a particular value the larger the value of output
input voltage changes the greater will the output voltage (of either polarity) will be produced.
be. In mathematics this is equivalent to the Typical input and output waveforms for an
differential function. integrator are shown in Fig. 8.16. Notice how the
Typical input and output waveforms for a square wave input is converted to a wave that
differentiator are shown in Fig. 8.14. Notice how has a triangular shape. Once again, note that the
the square wave input is converted to a train of output waveform is inverted.
short duration pulses at the output. Note also
Comparators
that the output waveform is inverted because the
signal has been applied to the inverting input of A comparator using an operational amplifier is
the operational amplifier. shown in Fig. 8.17. Since no negative feedback
has been applied, this circuit uses the maximum
Integrators gain of the operational amplifier. The output
An integrator using an operational amplifier is voltage produced by the operational amplifier will
shown in Fig. 8.15. This circuit provides the

Figure 8.13 A differentiator Figure 8.15 An integrator

Figure 8.14 Typical input and output waveforms Figure 8.16 Typical input and output waveforms
for a differentiator for an integrator
169
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

Figure 8.17 A comparator

Figure 8.19 A summing amplifier

Figure 8.18 Typical input and output waveforms

for a comparator
Figure 8.20 Typical input and output waveforms
thus rise to the maximum possible value (equal for a summing amplifier
to the positive supply rail voltage) whenever the
voltage present at the non-inverting input exceeds Summing amplifiers
that present at the inverting input. Conversely,
A summing amplifier using an operational
the output voltage produced by the operational
amplifier is shown in Fig. 8.19. This circuit
amplifier will fall to the minimum possible
produces an output that is the sum of its two
value (equal to the negative supply rail voltage)
input voltages. However, since the operational
whenever the voltage present at the inverting
amplifier is connected in inverting mode, the
input exceeds that present at the non-inverting
output voltage is given by:
input.
VOUT = – (V1 + V2)
Typical input and output waveforms for a
where V1 and V2 are the input voltages (note that
comparator are shown in Fig. 8.18. Notice how
all of the resistors used in the circuit have the
the output is either +15 V or –15 V depending on
same value). Typical input and output waveforms
the relative polarity of the two inputs. A typical
for a summing amplifier are shown in Fig. 8.20.
application for a comparator is that of comparing
A typical application is that of ‘mixing’ two input
a signal voltage with a reference voltage. The
signals to produce an output voltage that is the
output will go high (or low) in order to signal the
sum of the two.
result of the comparison.
170
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

Positive versus negative Practical investigation

feedback
Objective
We have already shown how negative feedback
To measure the voltage gain and frequency
can be applied to an operational amplifier in
response of an inverting operational amplifier.
order to produce an exact value of gain. Negative
feedback is frequently used in order to stabilize
Components and test equipment
the gain of an amplifier and also to increase the
frequency response (recall that, for an amplifier Breadboard, AF signal generator (with variable-
the product of gain and bandwidth is a constant). frequency sine wave output), two AF voltmeters
Positive feedback, on the other hand, results in (or a dual-beam oscilloscope), ±9 V d.c. power
an increase in gain and a reduction in bandwidth. supply (or two 9 V batteries), TL081 (or similar
Furthermore, the usual result of applying positive operational amplifier), 22 pF, 2.2 nF, 47 nF and
feedback is that an amplifier becomes unstable 220 nF capacitors, resistors of 10 kΩ and 100 kΩ
and oscillates (i.e. it generates an output without 5% 0.25 W, test leads, connecting wire.
an input being present!). For this reason, positive
feedback is only used in amplifiers when the Procedure
voltage gain is less than unity.
Connect the circuit shown in Fig. 8.22 with CIN =
The important thing to remember from all of 47 nF and CF = 2.2 nF, set the signal generator to
this is that, when negative feedback is applied produce an output of 100 mV at 1 kHz. Measure
to an amplifier the overall gain is reduced and and record the output voltage produced and
the bandwidth is increased (note that the gain × repeat this measurement for frequencies over the
bandwidth product remains constant). When range 10 Hz to 100 kHz (see Table 8.4).
positive feedback is applied to an amplifier the
Replace CIN and CF with 220 nF and 22 pF
overall gain increases and the bandwidth is
capacitors and repeat the measurements, this
reduced. In most cases this will result in instability
time over the extended frequency range from
and oscillation.
1 Hz to 1 MHz, recording your results as shown in
Table 8.5.
Multi-stage amplifiers
Measurements and graphs
Multi-stage amplifiers can easily be produced
using operational amplifiers. Coupling methods Use the measured value of output voltage at
can be broadly similar to those described earlier 1 kHz for both sets of measurements, in order
in Chapter 7 (see page 152). As an example, to determine the mid-band voltage gain of the
Fig. 8.21 shows a two-stage amplifier in which stage. For each set of measurements plot graphs
each stage has a tailored frequency response.
Note how C1 and C3 provide d.c. isolation
between the stages as well as helping to
determine the low-frequency roll-off.

Figure 8.21 A multi-stage amplifier (both stages

have tailored frequency responses) Figure 8.22 See Practical investigation
171
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

showing the frequency response of the amplifier differences. Suggest typical applications for the
stage (see Fig. 8.23). In each case, use the circuit.
graph to determine the lower and upper cut-off
Table 8.5 Results (CIN = 220 nF, CF = 22 pF)
frequencies.
Frequency (Hz) Output voltage (V)
Calculations 4
10
For each circuit calculate:
20
(a) the mid-band voltage gain
40
(b) the lower cut-off frequency
100
(c) the upper cut-off frequency.
200
Compare the calculated values with the measured
400
values.
1k
Table 8.4 Results (CIN = 47 nF, CF = 2.2 nF) 10 k
20 k
Frequency (Hz) Output voltage (V)
40 k
10
100 k
20
200 k
40
400 k
100
200
Important formulae introduced
400
in this chapter
1k
2k Open-loop voltage gain
4k (pages 161 and 162):
10 k V
AV(OL) = OUT
VIN
Conclusion VOUT
AV(OL) = 20log10 dB
Comment on the performance of the amplifier VIN
stage. Is this what you would expect? Do the
measured values agree with those obtained
by calculation? If not, suggest reasons for any

Figure 8.23 Graph layout for plotting the results

172
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|27739474

8 Operational amplifiers

Closed-loop voltage gain: Problems

(page 162)
8.1 Sketch the circuit symbol for an
V
AV(CL) = OUT operational amplifier. Label each of the
VIN
connections.
VOUT 8.2 List four characteristics associated with
AV(CL) = 20log10 dB
VIN an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier.
Input resistance: 8.3 An operational amplifier with negative
(page 162) feedback applied produces an output of
VIN 1.5 V when an input of 7.5 mV is present.
RIN =
IIN Determine the closed-loop voltage gain.
8.4 Sketch the circuit of an inverting amplifier
Output resistance:
based on an operational amplifier. Label
(page 163)
your circuit and identify the components
V
ROUT = OUT(OC) that determine the closed-loop voltage
IOUT(SC) gain.
Slew rate 8.5 Sketch the circuit of each of the following
(page 163) based on the use of operational amplifiers:
DVOUT (a) a comparator
Slew rate =
Dt (b) a differentiator
(c) an integrator.
Lower cut-off frequency:
(page 166) 8.6 An inverting amplifier is to be constructed
having a mid-band voltage gain of 40, an
0.159
f1 = input resistance of 5 kΩ and a frequency
CINRIN
response extending from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Upper cut-off frequency: Devise a circuit and specify all component
(page 167) values required.
0.159 8.7 A summing amplifier with two inputs
f2 = has RF = 10 kΩ, and RIN (for both inputs)
C FRF
of 2 kΩ. Determine the output voltage
Output voltage produced by a summing amplifier: when one input is at −2 V and the other is
(page 170) +0.5 V.

VOUT = – (V1 + V2) 8.8 During measurements on an operational

amplifier under open-loop conditions, an
output voltage of 12 V is produced by
Symbol introduced in this chapter
an input voltage of 1 mV. Determine the
open-loop voltage gain expressed in dB.
8.9 With the aid of a sketch, explain what is
meant by the term ‘slew rate’. Why is this
important?
Numerical answers to these problems appear on
page 417.
Figure 8.24 Symbol introduced in this chapter

173
Downloaded by san abbigeri ([email protected])