ROLE OF POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY IN THE FOOD PRODUCTION TRADE

More than half of the world’s population is involved in food production to meet the total world food demand.
Agriculture is one of the few industries that creates resources continuously from nature in a sustainable way because it
creates organic matter and its derivatives by utilising solar energy and other material cycles in nature.
Increases in crop production have not been matched by technical improvements in post-production practices. Double and
triple cropping, and the development of higher-yielding hybrids have led to significant production gains but the lack of
post-harvest storage and processing facilities have resulted in greater post-production losses. The objective of this course
is to address the above problem by presenting detailed theory and practice in post-harvest technologies of agricultural
products.
COURSE OUTLINE
1. PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS
Properties of Raw Material in relation to the Process: Physical, Mechanical, Thermal, Functional and Growth
properties.
Cleaning and Sorting
2. ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES
Heat transfer: Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
Thermodynamics: Steam generation and Refrigeration.
3. UNIT OPERATIONS OF FOOD ENGINEERING
Drying, Size reduction, Evaporation, Freezing, Mixing, Canning, Filtration, Centrifugation, Irradiation, Extraction
4. PROCESSING SPECIFIC TO CROP
Grains: Cereals (maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, barley, oats, millet), Oil seeds (soybeans, sunflower seed, groundnuts,
canola) and the Pulses (edible beans).
Grain Quality, Grain Handling, Grain Drying, Grain Storage, Grain Drying in the Tropics.
Root Crops: Sweet Potatoes, Yams, Cassava, Potatoes, Onions.
Root Crop Quality and Losses, Storage of Potatoes, Storage of Onions, Cassava Storage.
Fruits and Vegetables: Fruits (Apples, Oranges, Mangoes) and Vegetables (Cabbage, other leaf vegetables)
Fruit and Vegetable Quality, Fruit and Vegetable Storage, Handling and Packaging, Cold-Storage Systems,
Processing of Fruit and Vegetables, Fruit and Vegetable Post-harvest Systems in the Tropics.
Coffee Processing
1. PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS
1.1 PROPERTIES OF RAW MATERIAL IN RELATION TO THE PROCESS
1.1.1 Physical Properties of Raw Materials: Size, shape, surface area, density, porosity, colour, aero and
hydrodynamic, textural, frictional. These properties are important in designing particular equipment or determining the
behaviour of the product for its handling. For example, in designing an air screen grain cleaner, the shape and size of the
grain determine the shape and size of the screen openings, angle of inclination and vibration amplitude and frequency of
screens. Table 1 shows some physical properties of maize, paddy rice and wheat.
1.1.2 Mechanical Properties: Hardness, compressive strength, impact and shear resistance and rheological properties
affect the behaviour of the material under the application of a force. Impact and shear resistance for instance are
important for size reduction so that the appropriate method of crushing, breaking or grinding of grains can be
determined.
1.1.3 Thermal Properties: Specific heat, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, enthalpy, heat transfer coefficient
and emissivity are important in thermal processing systems like heating, cooling, freezing and drying.
1.1.4 Functional Properties: Flavour, stress resistance, defect level and processability can be selected for particular
products. For example, special wheat varieties yield soft, low protein flour suitable for biscuits and cakes whilst other,
high protein wheats are suitable for bread flours.
1.1.5 Growth Properties: Growth and Maturation Properties. Purchasing of raw materials in the open market is
outmoded. Nowadays the processor contracts ahead with the farmer for a definite acreage of produce. Under this system
the processor may indicate the expected harvest date and provide transport and handling systems. It is the most effective
method of assuring supplies of the required materials at the required time and in the required quantity.

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Table 1. Physical Properties of Maize, Paddy Rice and Wheat at 12 – 16% Moisture Content (w.b.)
Property Maize Paddy Rice Wheat
Bulk Density (kg/m3) 745 590 805
1000-Kernel weight (g) 325 27 32
Porosity (%) 40 48 41
Specific heat (kJ/kg.C) 2.01 1.51 1.67
Thermal conductivity 0.159 0.106 0.137
(W/m.C)
Repose angle (degrees) 35 36 31
2 3
Sp. Surface area (m /m ) 784 1132 1181

1.2 CLEANING AND SORTING

Cleaning – separates contaminants from the raw materials
Sorting – separates the raw materials into categories of different physical characteristics such as size, shape and colour.
Grading – separates the raw materials into categories of different quality.
Functions of Cleaning
1. Removal of contaminants which constitute a health hazard or which are aesthetically unacceptable.
2. Control of microbial loads and chemical and biochemical reactions which impair subsequent process
effectiveness and product quality.
Requirements of a satisfactory cleaning process are:
1. Process should be as efficient as possible with minimum wastage
2. Design of the process and equipment should limit recontamination
3. Minimum product damage
4. Process must leave cleaned surface in an acceptable condition
5. Minimum volumes and strength of liquid effluents
In practice, acceptable standards of raw material cleanliness has to be set which reflects a balance between cleaning cost
and quality of food to be produced.
Contaminants
1. Mineral – soil, sand, stones, grease, glass fragments and metallic particles.
2. Plant – twigs, foliage, stalks, pits, skins, husks, wood pieces and string.
3. Animal – excreta, hairs, feathers, insect eggs, body parts.
4. Chemical – spray residues and fertilisers.
5. Microbial – micro-organisms and their by-products.
1.2.4 DRY CLEANING METHODS
These include screening, brushing, aspiration, abrasion, magnetic separation.
1.2.4.1 Screening – screens are size separators. In its simplest form it is a perforated bed supported on a frame.
Rotary Drum screens – referred to as trommels, centrifugal screens or reels, are continuous units. Cleaning
may be such as to retain undesired-oversize materials e.g. string-bag hairs from flour, whilst discharging a
cleaned product. Alternatively, screen may retain cleaned material as oversize whilst discharging undesired
material e.g. removal of weed-seeds, grit and small stones from cereals. Advantages – good capacity,
inexpensive to install, maintain and operate. Disadvantages – difficult to clean, high risk of recontamination.
Flat-bed screens – consists of one or more flat screen-decks fixed together in a dust tight casing, the assembly
being shaken by a variety of devices. Hard rubber taper-balls minimise blinding of screen apertures. Abrasion
and impact caused by moving bed screen is useful in loosening adherent soil but may damage delicate foods.

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1.2.4.2 Abrasion Cleaning – Include trommels, tumblers, vibrators, abrasive discs and rotating brushes. There is need to
attend to dust removal to limit recontamination, protect operators and prevent dust explosions.
1.2.4.3 Winnowing – Winnowing (or Aspiration) removes debris differing in buoyancy i.e. in aerodynamic properties
from the desired material. Material to be cleaned is fed into a stream of air at controlled velocity when separation into
two or more streams (e.g. light, middle and heavy) is effective. Aspiration is used in combine-harvesters, in pea-viners,
bean-harvesters and similar machines. Also used to clean onions, melons and eggs. There is need for dust control for
safety and health reasons and to prevent spread of contaminants.
1.2.4.4 Cleaning using Magnets – Only suitable for removing ferrous materials. They are usually located in the
conveyor trunking. They may also take the form of rotating or stationary magnetic drums, magnetised belts, magnets
located over belts carrying raw materials. Both permanent and electromagnets are used. Electromagnets are more
suitable since removal of built-up particles done by switching off.
1.2.4.5 Electrostatic Cleaning – uses difference in electrostatic charging of materials, particles being removed by
oppositely-charged, or earthed rollers or grids. Used in cleaning of tea.
1.2.5 WET CLEANING METHODS
Effective in removing firmly adherent soils and allows use of detergents and sanitisers. They include soaking, spraying,
fluming, floatation, ultrasonic cleaning, filtration, settling.
1.2.5.1 Soaking – Simplest, often used as preliminary method in cleaning root vegetables and other materials which are
heavily contaminated. Soak tanks are made of metal, smooth concrete or other suitable materials. Wood not suitable
since it absorbs water. Efficiency of soaking improved by:
(i) moving water relative to material by propeller stirrer built in the tank.
(ii) moving material relative to the water by partially submerged rotating perforated drum in soak tank.
For delicate materials like strawberries and asparagus, agitation is done by sparging compressed air in the tank.
Efficiency can also be improved by warm water and detergents though they may spoil some food materials. Chlorinated
water may be used to decrease bacterial load.
1.2.5.2 Spray Washing – Most widely used method of wet cleaning. Food surfaces are subjected to water sprays.
Efficiency depends on: water pressure, volume of water, temperature of water, distance of food from spray origin, time
of exposure of food to spray and the number of spray jets used. It is most effective to use a small volume of water at high
pressure although this might damage ripe soft fruits.
Spray Drum Washers – Consist of a reel constructed of metal rods or slats spaced so as to retain the food
material but allowing debris to be washed through. Drum rotates slowly at an inclination to the horizontal.
Washing cycle and movement of material controlled by both angle of inclination and speed of rotation. Water is
sprayed from a central rod which is fitted with jets. Abrasion in the washer loosens soil but may damage some
foods.
Spray Belt Washer – A perforated conveyor belt carries the material beneath banks of water sprays.
1.2.5.3 Flotation Washing – Depends on difference in buoyancy between desired and undesired parts of food materials
to be cleaned. Bruised or rotten apples which sink in water may be removed from good ones by this method. Heavy
debris can also be removed by fluming dirty produce over a series of adjustable weirs. Flotation washer can remove
debris at rates of 3 tonnes/hr. Water rates are in the range of 200 – 500 litres/min.
Froth flotation depending on wetting properties of food and its contaminants is used in freeing peas from seeds by
immersion in a dilute mineral oil emulsion through which air is blown. Contaminants floated on the foam are skimmed
off whilst peas sink.
1.2.5.4 Ultrasonic Cleaning – Ultrasonic waves are sound waves above those detectable by the human ear (ie above 16
kHz). Insonation of a fluid with ultrasonic waves at frequencies of 20 – 100 kHz produces rapidly alternating pressure in
the path of the waves. This causes cavitation and decavitation resulting in violent agitation of particles immersed in the
fluid.
Dewatering – is used to remove excess water after wet cleaning. It may be effected by vibrated screens or dewatering
reels.
Table 2 Dry versus Wet Cleaning Methods
Cleaning Method Advantages Disadvantages
Dry Cleaning (i) Low plant cost (i) Dusty- personnel hazard,
explosion hazard,
(ii) Cleaned surface dry
recontamination hazard
(iii) Concentrated effluent easily disposed of

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 (iv) Plant easily cleaned (ii) Adherent soil inefficiently
removed
(v) Chemical and microbiological activity
minimised (iii) Product damage often high
Wet Cleaning (i) Adherent soil efficiently removed (i) Chemical and
microbiological activity
(ii) Flexible cleaning – use of heat, sanitisers,
accelerated.
detergents, sterilants.
(ii) High water cost.
(iii) Dustless.
(iii) Dilute, voluminous highly
(iv) Product damage minimised.
polluting effluent generated.
(iv) Cleaned surface wet, costly
after-processing, e.g. drying,
dewatering necessary.
(v) Equipment cleaning and
sanitation difficult – may
cause product
recontamination.

1.2.6 SORTING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Sorted on basis of colour, damage and size. Sorting on basis of colour and damage done manually.
1.2.6.1 Screen – vibrating screens are made of copper, stainless steel or other materials that do not react chemically with
products are used. Vibrating screen need to be carefully controlled to minimise product damage.
1.2.6.2 Diverging Belts – consist of two belts which diverge as they travel. Fruit is carried on and between the belts
smaller fruits dropping where belt begins whereas bigger ones carried on further.
1.2.6.3 Roller Sorters – are fast, accurate and cause little damage to the fruit. The fruit is continuously rotated so that
each individual piece has an opportunity to register its minimum dimension with the space in the sorter. The space
increases progressively through the sorter.
1.2.6.4 Weight Sorters – are accurate, moderately fast and cause minimum product damage. They can be used on all
large size products such as apples, oranges and can be adapted to egg handling. Fruits are carried into individual cups
which travel through the sorter and are indexed with spring-loaded trips. The spring tension is progressively weaker from
beginning to end of movement. The heavier units overcome the spring reaction and are discharged at the beginning of
the travel, the lighter units moving a greater distance before being discharged. It does not handle large quantity of
material per unit time compared with other sorters.
1.2.7 CLEANING AND SORTING GRAIN, NUTS AND SEED
Cleaning and sorting of grain and various seed stocks are done simultaneously. Cleaning, sorting and grading are based
on the following: size, shape, specific gravity and surface characteristics.
1.2.7.1 Screens – Most widely used sorting device. When used with air blast, will satisfactorily clean and sort most
granular products. Composed of two or more screens suspended by hangers in a way that gives them a horizontal
oscillating motion, H and a smaller vertical motion, V. The combination of these two motions moves the grain down the
screen, tossing it so that the grain is stirred. The rate of downward travel of the grain is controlled by adjusting the screen
pitch. For spherical materials e.g. beans, wheat, onion seed and sorghum seed, round-hole screens are recommended. For
oblong materials e.g. oats, alfalfa, flax, maize and pumpkin seed, screens with oblong holes are recommended.
1.2.7.2 Spiral Separator – Separates on basis of shape. Consist of inner and out helices. Material is fed at the top of the
inner helix and rolls down. Round elements roll down the helix until their centrifugal speed is big enough to cause them
to roll up and over the edge into the outer helix. They roll down to the bottom and out the outside spout. The elements
that are not round do not roll fast enough to be discharged over the edge. They are discharged through spouts connected
to the inner spirals. Mustard, rape, vetch, wild peas and similar round seed can be separated from wheat, flax, clover.
This device is simple and inexpensive.
1.2.7.3 Disc and cylinder separators – Consist of a horizontal cylinder with indents on the inside surface. The indents
which are hemispherical pick up grain from the mixture in the cylinder. Wider grains roll out of the indents before they
have lifted sufficiently to fall past the separating edge S. Grains with smaller width are lifted a greater height before
falling and are deposited in the centre trough for removal. Separation is made on the basis of length of grain. Long grains
and foreign materials in the form of sticks and stalks are not picked up by the indents. Fineness of separation is
controlled by moving the separating edge S. The higher the edge the shorter the length of grain that is removed. The

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speed of the cylinder is an important factor since it determines the centrifugal force which keeps the grains in the indents.
This machine is useful in cleaning and sorting grain into grade fractions. A single machine can be used for barley, wheat,
rye and oats.
The disc separator separates on the basis of grain length. The slightly undercut pockets can pick up and retain short grain
but long grains fall out. It is good for removing dissimilar materials. For example wheat and barley can be removed from
oats.
Disc and cylinder separators have high capacity.
1.2.7.4 Separation based on surface texture – Surface texture may be used as a basis for separation when other
methods fail. The principle shown in the figure below is used to separate certain weed seeds from useful seed of similar
size, shape and density. The drum (1) has special rough surface that picks up the rough-surfaced weed seeds. These seeds
are thrown against the roll shield (3) and are ejected by being bounced out as indicated by the dotted line (6).
Adjustments are made in the rate of feed, speed of roll, character of cylinder roughness and roll inclination.
1.2.7.5 Separation of heavy and other foreign materials – Stones, dirt, clay, glass, pieces of metal must be completely
removed from grain or other products if the end product is to be of highest quality. Stones and metallic substances can
destroy milling equipment and render product unfit for consumption. A specific gravity table combined with air flotation
operating on the same principle as gravity table discussed in section 1.2.7.6 can separate all heavy foreign materials. Iron
and steel can be removed with magnetic separators. Hard clods which are the same size, shape and density as the grain
can be removed by passing the mixture between two soft rubber rolls so spaced that the material is not harmed but the
clay pieces are sufficiently reduced in size. They can then be removed by screening or other method.
1.2.7.6 Aerodynamics of small particles – A particle in free fall reaches a steady state velocity depending on: physical
characteristics of the particle, the fluid in which it is falling and the accelerating force. These particle characteristics are
useful in pneumatic separation and conveying. The steady state velocity is also the fluid velocity required to suspend or
balance a particle, thus the applicability to processing operations.

F
W

Figure Aerodynamic forces on a particle.

The forces on the particle are
v
m  g V p  p  V p  f   F (1)
t
By definition

v2
F C f A (2)
2
Equation (1) therefore becomes

dv  p  f  v2  f A
  g C (3)
dt    2m
 p 
Acceleration due to gravity g is positive for a particle starting from rest or having an initial downward velocity. The
acceleration is negative for an initial upward velocity.
If p > f particle motion is downward after steady state. If p < f particle motion is upward after steady state.
For constant velocity, steady state conditions, dv/dt = 0, eqn. (3) can be solved for the terminal velocity for a particle at
rest or moving when the upward and downward forces are equal. It is given by

5
 2 g m p   f 
v (4)
C Ap f

The particle Reynolds number is given by

 f vdp
Re  (5)

If the particle Reynolds number is less than 2.0 then the flow is streamline and the drag coefficient is given by
24
C (6)
Re

v
When C is substituted in equations (2) and (1) and m  0 and g replaced by a, acceleration due to net external
t
forces, Stokes’ equation is obtained as given by equation (9). In addition to estimating the terminal velocity, Stokes’
equation can also be used to evaluate dynamic viscosity of the fluid. For Reynolds number in the range 2.0 – 500, the
drag coefficient is

C
24
Re

1.0  0.15 Re 0.687  (7)

Reynolds number in range 500 – 200 000, the drag coefficient is

C  0.44 (8)
Table 3 Relationship between Re and C for spheres.

Re C Re C Re C Re C
0.1 240 10 4.1 1000 0.46 100000 0.48
0.2 120 20 2.55 2000 0.42 200000 0.42
0.3 80 30 2.00 3000 0.40 300000 0.2
0.5 49.5 50 1.50 5000 0.385 400000 0.084
0.7 36.5 70 1.27 7000 0.39 600000 0.1
1.0 26.5 100 1.07 10000 0.405 1000000 0.13
2 14.4 200 0.77 20000 0.45 3000000 0.2
3 10.4 300 0.65 30000 0.47
5 6.9 500 0.55 50000 0.49
7 5.4 700 0.50 70000 0.5

Agricultural particles, oats, grass seed, ground materials, dust, sawdust for example do not confirm to any of the three
geometries discussed. Most particles fall between two of the geometries or an approximate equivalent sphere can be
assumed.
Pneumatic Separators – Fanning mills for farm use or small-seed processing plants consist essentially of a set of screens
as described in section 1.2.7.1 and a fan for moving air through the grain which removes chaff, dirt and light weight
seed.
The moving air can be provided by ‘blowing’ through the grain the air coming from the discharge of a fan; or it can be
provided by ‘drawing’ air through the grain by connection to the intake of a fan. The latter process is called Aspiration.

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Specific Gravity Separators – Can make accurate separations. Separation is based on two conditions: (i) the ability of the
grain to flow down an inclined plane (ii) the lifting or floating effect produced by the upward motion of air. The lifting
effect is a function of size, shape, weight and degree of surface roughness. Table 4 gives specific gravity values for some
grains.
Table 4 Specific Gravity for some Grains

Grain Specific Gravity Grain Specific Gravity

Wheat 1.30 Sorghum 1.24
Oats 0.99 Rye 1.23
Millet 1.11 Rice 1.12
Barley 1.13 Maize 1.19
Soybeans 1.18

1.2.7.7 Centrifugal Separation – An example is the cream separator. In industry, this principle is used to separate a
suspended material, finely divided solid or liquid from a liquid carrying medium.
Stokes’ Equation – Defines the terminal or steady-state velocity of particles moving under an accelerating force with
streamlined flow.

2r 2  p   f a
v (9)
9
The maximum or limiting radius for which Stokes’ equation applies is
1
1 36 2  3

r  
2  a f  p   f   (10)

Stokes’ law does not apply to particles which are so small that they approach the size of the molecules of the fluid
medium.
The centrifuge – Movement of dissimilar particles through a fluid can be greatly speeded by increasing the acceleration
factor a, by rotating the mixture or suspension by a fixed axis. This fact is utilised in the centrifuge which rotates a small
sample of the material around an axis at a high rate of speed. The value of a in Stokes’ equation when settling force is
due to centrifugal force is

a
2 n  R
2

(11)
3600
Combining equations (9) and (11) we obtain

r 2 n 2 R p   f 
v (12)
410
Equation (12) gives the rate of streamlined movement of a particle through a medium under the influence of centrifugal
action.
The cream separator – Used to separate fat from milk. The bowl rotates at about 8000rpm and whirls the incoming milk
producing an accelerating force that acts in the radial direction. The heavier material (skim milk) will move to the outer
part of the bowl, whereas the lighter fraction (butterfat) will move towards the axis of the bowl. The incoming milk
causes the material to rise. The skim milk rises on the outer side of the bowl and is ejected through an opening. The
cone-shaped discs funnel the cream toward the centre of the bowl; the cream rises and is discharged through a cream
screw. The screw is used to regulate the rate of flow of cream which in turn regulates the concentration of butterfat, the
faster the rate of flow, the lower the concentration of butterfat.
Cyclone separator – or collector is used in processing as a device for collecting the end product. They are often used to
remove particles of about 10 m diameter from air. They also used in pneumatic conveying. The air and material enter
tangentially at the top and descend with a circular motion described by an outer vortex. The material is separated during

7
the downward descend, and the cleaner air ascends in a tighter vortex at the centre and is discharged. A particle that has
entered the cyclone is acted upon by two forces, CF and W. The centrifugal force CF is

v2
CF  W (13)
gR
The separating force F is
1
 v2 2  2

F  W     1
  gR 
(14)

 
The performance factor S is

CF v2
S  (15)
W gR
The larger the S, the more effective the separation will be. S is an acceleration multiplier and defines the number of “g’s”
acting on a particle. The entering particle is acted upon by the force F which causes it to move outward and towards the
wall during its downward helical travel. The velocity v decreases as it approaches the wall because of wall friction and
the particle settles into the cone. Its rate of movement is a function of the separation factor S and the weight and size of
the particle. The terminal velocity of settling of finely divided particles depends on weight and effective size. The lighter
they are the longer it takes for them to settle in specified distance. Consequently, the depth or number of turns in the
helix is also important.
The pressure drop through the cyclone is given by
12 b h
P 1 1
(16)
K d E  L   H 
3 3
2

 dC   dC 
The diameter of the smallest particle that can be removed by a cyclone is given by
1
  2
 
 9 d E 
dp   K  (17)
 
 2 Nv  p   f  4R  
  dE  
where K is a constant, 0.5 – 0.7 and N is 2.
Symbols
A projected area of particle, m2
a accelerating force, m/s2
b entry width, m
C particle aerodynamic or drag coefficient, dimensionless
CF centrifugal force, N
dC diameter of cylinder, m
dE diameter of exit duct, m
dp average particle diameter, m
F force, N
g acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
H cone height, m
h entry height, m
L cylinder height, m

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 K vane constant, dimensionless, 0.5 – 0.7
m particle mass, kg
N number of effective turns of air stream in the inner spiral
n rotational speed, rpm
R radius of rotation, m
Re Reynolds number, dimensionless
r particle radius, m
t time, s
Vp particle volume, m3
v linear or tangential velocity, m/s
W particle weight, N
Greek symbols
f fluid density, kg/m3
p particle density, kg/m3
 fluid viscosity, kg/m.s