Unit 3: Individual

Determinants of
Organizational Behavior-
II
MOTIVATION
David Myers (1996) defines
motivation as “A need or
desire that serves to
energize behavior and to
direct it towards a goal.”
Motivation is what prompts
the person to act in a certain
way, or at least develop an
inclination for specific
behavior.
Nature of motivation
• Motivation is an inner feeling which
energizes a person to work more.
• The emotions or desires of a person
prompt him for doing a particular work.
• There are unsatisfied needs of a person
which disturb his equilibrium.
• A person moves to fulfill his unsatisfied
needs by conditioning his energies.
 Types of Motivation
Positive Motivation:
Positive motivation or incentive motivation is based on reward. The
workers are offered incentives for achieving the desired goals. The
incentives may be in the shape of more pay, promotion, recognition of
work, etc. The employees are offered the incentives and try to improve
their performance willingly.

Negative Motivation:
Negative or fear motivation is based on force or Fear causes employees to
act in a certain way. In case, they do not act accordingly then they may be
punished with demotions or lay-offs. The fear acts as a push mechanism.
The employees do not willingly co-operate, rather they want to avoid the
punishment. Though employees work up to a level where punishment is
avoided but this type of motivation causes anger and frustration. This
type of motivation generally becomes a cause of industrial unrest.
Importance of Motivation
High Performance:
Motivated employees will put maximum efforts
for achieving organizational goals. The untapped
reservoirs, physical and mental abilities are
tapped to the maximum. Better performance will
also result in higher productivity. The cost of
production can also be brought down if
productivity is raised. The employees should be
offered more incentives for increasing their
performance. Motivation will act as a stimulant
for improving the performance of employees.
Low Employee Turnover and Absenteeism:
When the employees are not satisfied with their
job then they will leave it whenever they get an
alternative offer. The dissatisfaction among
employees also increases absenteeism. The
employment training of new employees costs
dearly to the organisation. When the employees
are satisfied with their jobs and they are well
motivated by offering them financial and non-
financial incentives then they will not leave the
job. The rate of absenteeism will also be low
because they will try to increase their output.
Better Organizational Image:
Those enterprises which offer better
monetary and non-monetary facilities to
their employees have a better image
among them. Such concerns are successful
in attracting better qualified and
experienced persons. Since there is a better
man-power to development programme,
the employees will like to join such
organizations. Motivational efforts will
simplify personnel function also.
Better Industrial Relations:
A good motivational system will create
job satisfaction among employees. The
employment will offer those better
service conditions and various other
incentives. There will be an atmosphere
of confidence among employers and
employees. There will be no reason for
conflict and cordial relations among both
sides will create a health atmosphere. So
motivation among employees will lead to
better industrial relations.
Acceptability to Change:
The changing social and industrial situations will require
changes and improvements in the working of enterprises.
There will be a need to introduce new and better methods
of work from time to time. Generally, employees resist
changes for fear of an adverse effect on their employment.
When the employees are given various opportunities of
development then they can easily adapt to new situations.
They will think of positive side of new changes and will
co-operate with the management. If the employees are
satisfied with their work and are not offered better
avenues then they will oppose everything suggested by
the management. Motivation will ensure the acceptability
of new changes by the employees.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES:

1. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION: Intrinsic motivation is the

natural tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal
interests and exercise capabilities. When we are intrinsically motivated, we do
not need incentives or punishments because the activity itself is rewarding.

2. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION: On the other hand, if we do

something in order to earn a grade, avoid punishment or for some other reason
that has very little to do with the task itself, then it is known as Extrinsic
motivation.
THERE ARE MANY THEORIES PROPOSED ON
MOTIVATION SOME OF THEM ARE:

 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS.

HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THRORY.
MCGREGOR’S THEORY (X AND Y)
The two-factor motivation theory, otherwise known as
Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory or dual-factor theory,
argues that there are separate sets of mutually exclusive
factors in the workplace that either cause job satisfaction or
dissatisfaction (Herzberg, 1966; 1982; 1991; Herzberg,
Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Generally, these factors
encouraging job satisfaction relate to self-growth and self-
actualization.

To Herzberg, motivators ensured job satisfaction while a lack

of hygiene factors spawned job satisfaction.
MCGREGOR’S THEORY (X AND Y)
If you believe that your team members dislike their work
and have little motivation, then, according to McGregor,
you'll likely use an authoritarian style of management.
This approach is very "hands-on" and usually involves
micromanaging people's work to ensure that it gets done
properly. McGregor called this Theory X.

On the other hand, if you believe that your people take

pride in their work and see it as a challenge , then you'll
more likely adopt a participative management style.
Managers who use this approach trust their people to
take ownership of their work and do it effectively by
themselves. McGregor called this Theory Y.
 Theory X:
Theory X managers tend to take a pessimistic view of their people, and
assume that they are naturally unmotivated and dislike work.

Work in organizations that are managed like this can be repetitive, and
people are often motivated with a "carrot and stick" approach.
Performance appraisals and remuneration are usually based on
tangible results, such as sales figures or product output, and are used
to control and "keep tabs" on staff.

This style of management assumes that workers:

• Dislike their work.
• Avoid responsibility and need constant direction.
• Have to be controlled, forced and threatened to deliver work.
• Need to be supervised at every step.
• Have no incentive to work or ambition, and therefore need to be
enticed by rewards to achieve goals.
Theory Y:
Theory Y managers have an optimistic opinion of their people, and they use a
decentralized, participative management style. This encourages a more collaborative ,
trust-based relationship between managers and their team members.

People have greater responsibility, and managers encourage them to develop their skills
and suggest improvements. Appraisals are regular but, unlike in Theory X
organizations, they are used to encourage open communication rather than to control
staff.
Theory Y organizations also give employees frequent opportunities for promotion.

This style of management assumes that workers are:

• Happy to work on their own initiative.
• More involved in decision making.
• Self-motivated to complete their tasks.
• Enjoy taking ownership of their work.
• Seek and accept responsibility, and need little direction.
• View work as fulfilling and challenging.
• Solve problems creatively and imaginatively.
 Learning:
Learning can be defined as the
permanent change in behavior due to
direct and indirect experience. It means
change in behavior, attitude due to
education and training, practice and
experience. It is completed by
acquisition of knowledge and skills,
which are relatively permanent.
Definition:
Learning is any relatively permanent
change in behavior that occurs as a
result of experience.

-Stephen P. Robbins
 Nature of Learning

• Learning involves change

• It may or may not guarantee
improvement.
• It should be permanent in
nature, that is learning is for
lifelong.
• Learning is reflected through
behavior.
 Factors Affecting Learning
Motivation − The encouragement, the support one gets to complete a task, to
achieve a goal is known as motivation. It is a very important aspect of
learning as it acts gives us a positive energy to complete a task. Example −
The coach motivated the players to win the match.
Practice − We all know that ”Practice makes us perfect”. In order to be a
perfectionist or at least complete the task, it is very important to practice
what we have learnt. Example − We can be a programmer only when we
execute the codes we have written.
Environment − We learn from our surroundings, we learn from the people
around us. They are of two types of environment – internal and
external. Example − A child when at home learns from the family which is an
internal environment, but when sent to school it is an external environment.
Mental group − It describes our thinking by the group of people we chose to
hang out with. In simple words, we make a group of those people with
whom we connect. It can be for a social cause where people with the same
mentality work in the same direction. Example − A group of readers,
travelers, etc.
 Components of learning:
There are six interactive components of the
learning process: attention, memory,
language, processing and organizing,
graphomotor (writing) and higher order
thinking. These processes interact not only
with each other, but also with emotions,
classroom climate, behavior, social skills,
teachers and family.
Attention
Paying attention is the first step in learning
anything. It is easy for most of us to pay
attention to things that are interesting or
exciting to us. It is difficult for most of us to
pay attention to things that are not. When
something is not interesting to us, it is easier
to become distracted, to move to a more
stimulating topic or activity, or to tune out.
 Memory
Memory is the complex process that uses three
systems to help a person receive, use, store, and
retrieve information. The three memory systems are
(1) short-term memory (e.g., remembering a phone
number you got from information just long enough
to dial it), (2) working memory (e.g., keeping the
necessary information “files” out on the mind’s
“desktop” while performing a task such as writing
a paragraph or working a long division problem),
and (3) long-term memory (a mind’s ever
expanding file cabinet for important information
we want to retrieve over time).
Language
Language is the primary means by which we give
and receive information in school. The two language
processing systems are expressive and receptive. We
use expressive language when we speak and write,
and we use receptive language when we read and
listen. Students with good language processing
skills usually do well in school. Problems with
language, on the other hand, can affect a student’s
ability to communicate effectively, understand and
store verbal and written information, understand
what others say, and maintain relationships with
others.
 Organization
We process and organize information in two main
ways: simultaneous (spatial) and successive (sequential).
Simultaneous processing is the process we use to
order or organize information in space. Having a good
sense of direction and being able to “see” how puzzle
pieces fit together are two examples of simultaneous
processing. Successive processing is what we use to
order or organize information in time and sequence.
Concepts of time, dates, and order – yesterday, today,
and tomorrow, months of the year, mathematical
procedures such as division and multiplication, word
order in sentences, and sentence order in paragraphs
are examples of sequential processing.
Graphomotor/writing

The writing process requires

neural, visual, and muscular
coordination to produce written
work. It is not an act of will but
rather an act of coordination
among those functions.
Higher Order Thinking
Higher order thinking (HOT) is more than
memorizing facts or relating information in exactly the
same words as the teacher or book expresses it. Higher
order thinking requires that we do something with the
facts. We must understand and manipulate the
information.
HOT includes concept formation; concept connection;
problem solving; grasping the “big picture”;
visualizing; creativity; questioning; inferring; creative,
analytical and practical thinking; and metacognition.
Theories of learning
1. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of conditioning
in which an individual responds to some
stimulus that would not ordinarily produce
such as response.
It is the process of learning to associate a
particular thing in our environment with a
prediction of what will happen next.
Classical conditioning, the association of such
an event with another desired event resulting in
behavior, is one of the easiest to understand
processes of learning.
When we think of the classical conditioning, the first name that comes to our mind is
Ivan Pavlov, the Russian psychologist.
The normal stimulus for a flow of saliva is the taste of food. But often the mouth
waters at the mere sight of luscious peach, on hearing it described or even thinking
about it. Thus, one situation is substituted for another to elicit behavior.
This is called conditioning. In the case of classical conditioning, a simple surgical
procedure allowed Pavlov to measure accurately the amount of saliva secreted by a
dog.
When Pavlov presented one dog with a piece of meat, the dog exhibited a noticeable
increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat and merely
rang a bell, the dog did not salivate.
Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. After repeatedly
hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell
rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no
food was offered.
In classical conditioning, learning involves a conditioned stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus. Here, the meat was unconditioned stimulus; it invariably
caused the dog to react in a specific way.
The reaction that took place whenever the unconditioned stimulus occurred was
called the unconditioned response. Here, the bell was a conditioned stimulus.
When the bell was paired with the meat, it eventually produced a response when
presented alone. This is a conditioned response.
 Operant conditioning
The second type of conditioning is called operant conditioning.
Here, we learn that a particular behavior is usually followed by a reward
or punishment. What Pavlov did for classical conditioning, the Harvard
psychologist B.F. Skinner did for operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning argues that one’s behavior will depend on different

situations. People will repeatedly behave in a specific way from where
they will get benefits.
On the other hand, they will try to avoid a behavior from where they will
get nothing. Skinner argued that creating pleasing consequences to
specific forms of behavior would increase the frequency of that behavior.
In one famous experiment displaying operant learning, the psychologist
B.F. Skinner trained rats to press a lever to get food. In this experiment, a
hungry rat placed in a box containing a lever attached to some concealed
food.
At first, the rat ran around the box randomly.
In this process, it happened to press the lever, and the food dropped into the
box. The dropping of food-reinforced the response of pressing the lever.
After repeating the process of pressing the lever followed by dropping off food
many times, the rat learned to press the lever for food.
People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively
reinforced for doing so. Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow
the desired response. Also, behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less
likely to be repeated.
For example, suppose you are an employee of ‘X’ Bank limited. Your Branch
Manager has announced in a meeting that you will get a bonus if you can bring
a $100,000,000 deposit for the bank.
You worked hard and found that you have done this successfully.
But when the time comes, you find that you are given no bonus for your hard
work which increases the bank’s deposit by $100,000,000.
In the next year, if your manager again says you about the hard work.
Maybe you will be stopped because last year you did not receive anything for it.
Many activities that we will engage in during everyday life can be classified as
an operant.
Turning your key in a lock, writing a letter, calling parents on the telephone all
of these are operant acts, operant in this sense that we do them in anticipation of
reward which acts as a reinforcer for the commission of these behaviors.
Principles of learning

5 principles of learning are;

Participation.
Repetition.
Relevance.
Transference.
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