Force on upper plate, F220 FAS This is the value of shear stress ie., € Let the fluid viscosity between the plates is u. where du = Change of velocity = «-0=u =0.60 nvs a Using the equation (1.2), we have T= Il oS dy = Change of distance = .025 x 10 m fim Fowoe:periealt wens 0 m 2.0 x 025 x 10~ s $0. 3 px 20%0252107? _ 933 x 10 NE 025 x10 0.60 33 x 10 10 poise = 8.33 x 10* pate 1,510 mnt is pulled with a speed of 0.4 mls relative to anather mm from it, Fine the force ard power re “et to wiraloer le 20=p Problem 1.5. A flarplate of plate located at a distance of speed, if the fluid separating 1 having viscosity as 7 potse. Scanned DY Fahid PDF éreated by AAZSwapnilProperties of Fluids 10 ‘Thickness of oil film, t=dy = [Link]=15x107%m Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is p. Component of weight W, along the plane = W cos 60° = 300 cos 60° = 150 N ‘Thus the shear force, F, on the bottom surface of the plate = 150 N- F 150 and shear stress, where du = change of velocity dy=1=1.5x10%m 130 o6t ~" 5x10" a p= oe LAT N dm? = 1.17 10 = 11.7 poise. Ans. Problem 1.8 Twa harizontal-plates are placed 1.25 cm apart, the space between them being filled with oil of viseosity 14 poises. Calewlate the shear siress in oil if upper plate is moved with a velocity of 2.5 m/s. ([Link].. 1972) Solution. Given : Distance between plates. dy = 1.25 m= 0.0125 m _ Viscosity, = 14 poise Velocity ofupper plate, w= 2.5 misec. Shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as, t= & where du= Change of velocity between plates = u-O=u =2.§ m/sec. dy = 0.0125 m. 14s 25 Bx 10 ~ 0125 Problem 1.9 The space between nvo square flat parallel plates is filled with oit. Each side of the plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mut. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine : (i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and (ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95. ([Link]., Winter 1977) = 280 N/m’, Ans. Solution. Given : Each sideof a square ple = 60. cm= 0.60 m 2. Area, 0360" Thickness of oil film, =125<10%m vole ‘of upper plate. . y is scanned by Fahid }- PDE created by AAChange of velocity between plates, du= 2.5 mi/sec Force required on upper plate, F = 98.1 N Shear stress, em toet, FSI > : Area A 036m (0 Let p= Dynamic viscosity of oil Using equation (1.2), weg hae Ie pws sie dy 036 125x107 981, 125x107 036 25 = 1.3635 x 10 = 13.635 poise. Ans. =: = 1.3635 NS { AN = 1opeise) ™ m (4 Sp. gr. of oil, $= 0.95 Let v= kinematic viscosity of oil Using equation (1.1 A), Mass density of oil, P=5x 1000 = 0.95 x 1000 = 950 kg/m? 13005 *s) Using the relation. v= F. we getv= ee 001435 m/sec = 001435 x 164 cm/s = 14.35 stokes. Ans. (emis = stoke) Problem 1.10 Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m’. The shear stress at a point in oil is 0.2452 N/m? and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second. Solution. Given : Mass density, p= 981 kefm? . : Shear stress, += 0.2952 Nim? Velocity gradient, * =02s iy Using the equation (1.2), + ue or 0.2452 = 2 x 0.2 Kinematic viscosity Vis given by yell, 1226 p ORL =0.125.x 107 x 10* ems = 0.125 x 10? cm/s =[Link] = 125 stoke. Ans. (Cy ems = stoke) Problem 1.11. Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 8.05 poiie and kinematic viscosity 0.035 stokes. * -125x 107? msec Solution. Given = Nsim? = Scanned by Fahid Viscosity, u = 0.05 pois PDF created by AAZSwapnil , . ~~Properties of Fluids 12 Kinematie viscosity. V = 10.035 stokes 1.035 cms {+7 Stoke = em'/s} = 0.035 x 10°* m/s Using the relation v = 5 1 0 1438.5 erm! 13 TO * aasxag™ 78S kel Density of‘liquid _ 14285 ™ eS = 1.43. . Density of water "1000 7 4285 = 143: Ans o. Sp. ge. of liquid Problem 1.12 Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes artd specific gravity 1.9. ‘Solution. Given : Kinematic viscusity Sp. gr. of liquid Let the viscasity of liquid stokes = 6 cm/s = 6 « 10 m/s Now'sp. gr. of a liquid or 19= c+ Density of liquid cs Using the relation v 6x1o4= E 1900 . = 6x 1077 x 1900 = 1.14 Nsim? ~ = 1.14 x 10= 11.40 poise. Ans. Problem 1.13 The velocity distribution for low over a flat plate is given byu = 4 y-¥ in which iris the velocity in metre per second at a disiance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress dty = Ol m Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.6 poise. Solution. Given: du dy Avy =0.15, de 23 yx 0,15 0.75 - 0.30 = 0.45 dy 4 SN -_ Viscosity. p= 8.5 pose= 22 E : ( ~ 10 poise = 10 m \ " I scanned by Fahid PDE created by AAZSwapnil— [12E Fluid Mechanics oman nea du _ 85 N N Using equation (1.2), =p a = 7g XO4S Ta = 03825 T- Ans. Problem 4,14-—The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication benween a shaft and sleeve is | | G poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in ** bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm. Solution. Given: 18mm 14 Viscosity = 6 poise — 2 SNS 2o6 35 o4m 10 m 1 4 Dia. of shaft, D=04m Avo Loe Speed of shaft, N=190rp.m ‘90mm Sleeve length, L= 90mm = 90x 10m SLEEVE ‘Thickness of oil film. = 1Smm=15x 107m Fig. 15 . . __ RDN _xx0.4x190 . Tangential velocity of shaft, w= 72° == ds Using the relation cap dy where du = Change of velocity = u—0= dy = Change of disiance = 1 = 1.5x 10> m~ S398 — t= 10x = 1592 Nim? r 15x10 ‘This is shear stress on shaft cy Shear force onthe shaft, F'= Shear stress x Area = 1592 x RD x L = 1592 xRx.4 x 90> 107° = 180.05 N Torqué on the shaft T= Force x 2 = 180.05 x 24 = 3601 Nm - 2 2 2nNT _ 2x x190X 36.01 2. *Power lost ea = _ = 716.48 W. Ans. 7 @ 0 Problem 1.15 if the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is @ parabolic with the vertex 20 em {from the plate, were the velocity is 120 cm/sec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at «a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid és 8,5 poise. Sdlution. Given : Distance of vertex from plate = 20cm Velocity at vertex, u > 120. cm/sec Viscosity, n=85 poise = SSNS -085. om) * Power in $I, unit =T * @=Tx Bets scanned by Fahid PDF created by AAZSwapnil— —— ; | | \ Initial pressure Final pressure Increase in pressure, dp =(150~ 80)= 70 Niem? Bulk modulus is given by equation (1.10) as 25 K 2 aul. 7 = 70x 125 Nim? Vv 013s ape = 8.75 x 10° N/em’. Ans. ee 1.6 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY surface between two immis quids such tha Frembrance] eens Te ‘magnitude of this force per unit length: = tfie Surface ehergy per unit area. It is denoted by Greck letter o (called sigma). In MKS units, it is eS mas expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as Ni : eS The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by Fig. 1.10. Consider three molecules, B, Cofa liquid ina mass of liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero. But the molecule B, which is situated near the free surface, is acted upon by upward and downward forces which are unbalanced. Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is ‘acting in the downward directfon, The molecule C, situatei on the free surface of liquid, des Experience a resultant downward force. All the molecules onthe free surface experience a downward force etree On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to tension will be actin Suvtacetensionofheligaid p SP: Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity) d= Dia. of droplet. Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will be (i tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cul portion as shown in Fig. 1.11 (6) and this is equal to ‘x Circumference: scanned by Fahid PDF created by AzSwapnil24° Flisid Mechanics R tog ny E (#) pressure force on the area = a! and=p x7 @ as shown an in Fig. 1.11 (c): These two forets will be equal and opposite i under equilibrium conditions, i.e, TA\DRORLET! ” GTEURRICETENGION px z @=oxnd if, 26 (c) PRESSURE FORCES: Equation (1.14) shows that WHER the decrease of diameter of Fig. 11 Forces on droplet. the droplet, pressure intensity inside the droplet increases, . 1.6.2. Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble. A hollow bubble like-a saap bubble in air has t¥6 faces in contact with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface {teniion, In Sitch case, we have px 2 Pa2x(oxnd) . p= 208d , 80 (LIS) zp od ‘ 4 +6.3 Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet. Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘d’ and length shown in Fig. 1,12. Let p= Pressitre intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure 6= Surface tension of the liquid. . r +r the equilibrium of the semti jet, we have Force due to pressure = pX area of semi jet # =pxbkxd Force due to surface tension = ox 2L. Equating the forces, we have ~ + pe De we(1.16) 2 Pg eee Figs 12 Forces om liquid jet: Problem 1.25 The surface sension of water in contact with ir at 20°C is 0.0725 Nim. The pres- sure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 Nice? Sreater than the outside pressure. Cateulpte-the diameter of the droplet of water, Solution. Given : : Surface tension, © = 0.0725 Nim Pressure intensity, p in excess of outside Pressure is P= 0.02 Nem? = 0.02 x 104 mm d=dia, of the droplet JcdnneiL bp Paid PDF created by AAZSUsing equation (1.14), we get p = “6 or 0.02 x 10" = 4% 0.0725. _ 09145 m =.00145 x 1000 = 1.45 mm. Ans. 0.02 x (10) 7 Problem 1.26 Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the is. pressure is 2.5 N/m? above atmospheric pressure. Solution. Given; Dia. of bubble, d=40mm=40x 10? m Pressure in excess of outside, p = 2.5 N/mt® For a soap bubble, using equation (1.15), we get bo 8x =— 252 pe 40x 107 4x 00725 qd = g = 25X40 X10” jen = 0.0128 Nim. Ans. il Problem 1.27 The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 Nim? (atmospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 Nim of water. « Solution. Given : | Dia. of droplet, .04 mm = .04 x 107m Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32 Nicm? = 10.32 x 10*N/m* Surface tension, 6 =0.0725 Nim ee ‘The pressure inside the droplet, in excess of outside pressure is given by equation (J.14) or BISON _ 9725 Nim? 10" cm? Pressure inside the droplet = p + Pressure outside the droplet 725 + 10.32 = 11.045 Néem’. Ans. Capillarity. (Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liguid surface in a / ‘smallYute-refative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface is known as capillary depressiop) It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquids -vilue depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the bgend refuse tension of the liquid. \ pression for Capillary Rise. Consider a glass ibe of small diameter ‘d” opened at both ends and is inserted in a liquid, say water. ‘The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid. Let h = height of the liquid in the tube. Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of heighth is balanced by the forge atthe surface of the acid in the tobe Burthe Taree a1 he surface of Oe Tigard Te ibe ie to surface tension. Fig. 1.13 Capillary rise. “Tat o = Surface tension of liquid = Surface tension of Kauss © = Angle of contact between liquis ube. The weight of Tiqud Sa eaenea eight hin the TUDE = (AFEROF tube Xf) PXE anol by Fahid PDF created by AAZSwapnil(26 _Fhuid Mechanics 7 ‘ e) 3 = i @xhxpxg . we(E17) where p = Density of liquid Vertical component of the surface tensile force = (6 x Circumferénee) x cos @ =oxndxcosd S . we(1.18) rium, equating (1.17) and (1.18), we get v £3 A @xhkpxg soxndxcos® oxRdxcos8 _ 40cos0 a. Baxpxg PxEXd “The value of @ between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence cos @is equal to unity. Then rise of water is given by do ia— _ pxegxd 4 Expression for Capillary Fall. If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level of the outside liquid as shown in Fig. 1.14... ——————— Leth = Height of depression in tube. Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one is due to surface tension acting in the downwaid direction and is equal to a x Rd x cos 0. oe as ge Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at a depth ‘Area a a Se = 20) ‘h =px GPapaxhx st (+ p=psh} . Equating the two, we get s oxndxcos0=pghx = a ” he a 21) . Mi Value of @ for mercury and glass tube is 1282, Fig Problem 1.28 Calculate the capillary rise in o glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a}water and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions ¢'= 0.0725 N/m for water anda = 0.52 N/m for mercury in comact with air, The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact = 130°, Solution. Given: - Dia. of tube, d=25 mm=25-x10%m = Surface tenstion, 6 for water 0725 Nim for mercury =0.52Nim Sp. gr. of mercury =13.6 Scanned by-Fahid PDF created by AAZSwupnilcs Density : = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m’. (@) Capillary rise for water (6 = 0) s: a 40 4x 00725 Using equation (1.20), we geth = —4°__-_4%00725_ oem sen Dwgxd — 1000%981x 25107 = 0118 m=1.18em. Ans. (b) For mercury Angle of constant between mercury and glass tube, @= 130° 46 cos6 4x 052x008 130° pxgxd 136x1000x981x25x10% =~.004 m =~ 0.4 em. Ans. ‘The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. 29 Using equation (1.21), we get A= Problem 1.29 Calculate the capillary effect in millimetres in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, . immersed in (i) water, and (ii) mercury. The temperatuce of the liguid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.073575 N/m and 0.51 N/m respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero that for mercury 1.30°. Take density of water at 20°C as equal to 998 kg/m’. (U.P.S.C. Engg. Exam., 1974) Solution. Given : : Dia of tube, d=4mm=4x 103m ‘The capillary effect (i.e., capillary rise or depression) is given by equation (1.20) as 4g cos pxgxd where 6 = surface tenstion inkgf/m @ = angle of contact, and p = density - (@ Capillary effect for water +g = 0.073575 Nim, 0 = 0° = 998 kg/m? at 20°C j= SX 0073575 x08 7 51 x 107 m=7.51 mm, Ans. 998 x 981x4 x10 (i) Capillary effect for mercury - 6 =0.51 Nim, 6 = 130° and 9 = sp. Br. x 1000 = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m? 8 = 42051 608130" — __2.46 x 10° m = 2.46 mm, Ans, 13600 x 981x4 x 10 2 ‘The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. Problem 1.30. The capiliary rise in the glass tube is not to exceed 0.2 mm Of water. Determine its minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air = 0.0725 N/m. Solution. Given : ; Capillary rise, h=0.2mm=0.2x 10m Surface tension, 6 =0.0725 Nim scanned by Fahid PDF created by AAZSwapnil4 CHAPTER Buoyancy and Floatation >» 4.1 INTRODUCTION In this ehapter, the equilibrium of the floating and sub-merged bodies will be considered. Thus the chapter will include : 1. Buoyancy, 2. Centre of buoyancy, 3. Metacentre, 4. Metacentrie height, 5. Analytical method for determining metacenttic height, 6. Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and sub-merged body. and 7. Experimental method for metacentric height. » 4.2 BUOYANCY When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body. This upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is called the force of buoyancy or simply buoyancy. » 4.3 CENTRE OF BUOYANCY Iv is defined as the point, through which the force of buoyancy is supposed to act. As the force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, the centre of buoyancy will be the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced. Problem 4,1. Firid the volume of the water displaced and position of centre of 6uayancy for a wooden block of width 2,5 m and of depth 1.5 m, when it floats horizontally in water. The density of wooden block is 650 kg/m’ and its length 6.0 m. Solution, Given : Width =25m WATER Depth Sm: S Length =6.0m w Volume of the block 5x 1.5% 6.0 = 22.50 m* Density of wood, p= 650 kgfm* | v. Weight of block. = p xg x Volume 2 2am = 650 x 9.81 x 22.50 N = 143471 N Fig 4 128 scanned by Fahid PDE created by AAZSwapnil of Me |L -Buoyancy and Floatation 229 For equilibrium the weight of water displaced = Weight of wooden block = 143471 N <. Volume of water displaced Weight of water displaced _ 143471 ‘Weight density of water - 1000 x 9.81 (C+ Weight density of water = 1000 x 9.81 N/m?) Position of Centre of Buoyancy, Volume of wooden block in water = Volume of water displaced 4.625 m*, Ans. or 2,5 x A x 6.0 = 14.625 m’, where Ah is depth of wooden block in water 14.625 A = 0975 25x60 0.975 “ Centre of Buoyancy = —-— 0.4875 m from base. Ans. Problem 4.2 A wooden log of 0.6 m diameter and 5 m length is floating in river water. Find the i depti of the wooden log in water when the sp. gravity of the log is 0.7. Solution. Given : Dia. of log = 0.6 m Length, mm Sp. gt. 5207 ‘ Density of log = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m? Weight density of log, w=p xs = 700 x 9.81 Nimi Find depth of immersion or h Weight of wooden log = Weight density x Volume of log = 700x981 x WP xe = 700 x 9.81 x ; (62 x 51N= 989.6 x9.81N For equilibrium, Weight of wooden log = Weight of water displaced . = Weight density of water x Volume of water displaced Volume of water displaced = 9896 m* (2 Weight density of water = 1000 » 9.81 N/m") Let A is the depth of immersion “Volume of log inside water = Area of ADCA x Length = Area of ADCA x 5.0 : ' > But volume of log inside water = Voluine of water displaced = 0.98960 1, anid PDE created by AAZSwapnil~|132 Fluid Mechanics " = 1000 x ¢ x 0.6 x VN Weight of mercury displaced by body x Density of mercury x Volume of mercury displaced x 13.6 x 100 x Volume of body in mercury 13.6 x 1000 x 0.4 VN lensity xg x Volume of body = p x gx V and Force of buoyancy due to mercury Weight of the body where p is the density of the body S For equilibrium, we have Total buoyant force = Weight of the body 1000 x gx 0.6 x V+ 13.6 x 1000 x gx.4VepxgxV Pp = 600 + 13600 x .4 = 600 + 54400 = 6040.00 kg/m? Density of the body 4 = 6040.00 ke/m*, Ans. Problem 4.6 A float valve regulates the flow of oil of sp. gr. 0.8 into a cistern. The spherical float is 15 cin in diameter, AB is a weightless link carrying the float at one end, and a valve at the ather end which closes the pipe through which olf flows into the cistern. The link is mounted in a frictionless hinge at O and the angle AOB is 135°. The length of OA is 20 cm, and the distance between the centre of the float and the hinge is 50 cen, When the flow is stopped AO will be vertical. The valve is to be pressed on to the seat with a force of 9.81 W 10 completely stop the flow of oil into the cistern. It was observed that the flow of oil is stopped when the free surface of oil in the cistern és 35 crm below the hinge. Deiermine the weight of the float. ([Link]., Engg. Services, 1975) or lL, Solution. Given : Sp. gr. of oil =08 SEE 2. Density of oil, Po = 0.8 x 1000 a : = 800 kg/m’ SURFACE Dia. of float, D= 15cm ZAGB = 135° OA = 20 cm Force, P=981N OB = 50cm 134 Find the weight of the float, Let it is equal to W. Pe ‘When the flow of oil stopped, the centre of float is shown in Fig. 4.4. ‘The level of oil is also shown. The centre of float is below the level of oil, by a depth *h’. From ABOD, sin 45° = FP = SS * 50x sin 45° = 35 + or hs 50x B ~~ 35 = 35.395 ~ 35 = 0.355 om = .00355 m. The weight of float is acting through B, but the upward buoyant force is acting through the centre of weight of oil displaced. Volume of oil displaced mee hn? [ene Barsen} _ scanned In?Falitd PDE created by AAZSwapnil Se- the portion of the body sub-merged in liquid, will now be shifted towards right from the normal axis. | 3 Buoyancy and Floatation 133] = } x nx (075) + 00355 x x x (075)? = 0.000945 m' ©. Buoyant force = Weight of oil displaced = Py X gx Volume of oil = B00 x 9.81 x 000945 = 7.416 N The buoyant force and weight of the float passes through the same vertical line, passing through B. Let the weight of float is W. Then net vertical force on float = Buoyant force - Weight of float = (7.416 - W) Taking moments about the hinge O, we get é Px 20 = (7.416 — W) x BD = (7.416 — W) x 50 x cos 45° or 9.81 x 20 = (7.416 — W) x 35.355 2 w= 7.416 ~ 20%98! _ 7 416 5.55 = 1.866 N. Ans. 35355 >» 4.4 META-CENTRE It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted by a small angle. The meta-centre may also be defined as the point at which the line of action of the force of buoyancy will meet the normal axis of the body when the body is given a small angular displacement. Consider a body floating ina liquid as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a). Let the body is in equilibrium and Gis the centre of gravity and B the centre of buoyancy. For equilibrium, both the points lie on the normal axis, which is vertical. fe) &) Fig.4.5 Meta-centre 39 Let the body is given a small angular displacement in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 4 The centre of buoyancy, which is the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid or centre of gravity of Let itis at B, as shown in Fig. 4.5 (6). The line of action of the force of buoyancy in this new position, will intersect the normal axis of the body at some poiat say M. This point M is called Meta-centre. » 4.5 META-CENTRIC HEIGHT The distance MG, ie., the distance between the meta-centre of a floating body and the centre of gravity of the body is called meta-centric height. ; scanned by Fahid PDF created by AAZ Swapnil| | | | 134 Fluid Mechanics » 4.6 ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR META-CENTRE HEIGHT Fig. 4.6 (a) shows the position of a floating body in equilibrium. The location of centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy in this position is at G and B. The floating body is given a small angular displace! 1 in the clockwise direction. This is shown in Fig. 4.6 (6). The new centre of buoyancy is at B,. The vertical line through B, cuts the normal axis at M. Hence M is the meta-centre and GM is meta-centric height. AnouLar DISPLACEMENT or L | | (@) PLAN OF BODY AT WATER LINE 2 aE? Fig. 4.6 Meta-centre height of floating body. The angular displacement of the body in the clockwise direction causes the wedge-shaped prism OR’ on the right of the axis to go inside the water while the identical wedge-shaped prism repre- sented by AGA’ emerges out of the water on the left of the axis. These wedges represent a gain it buoyant foree on the right side and a corresponding loss of buoyant force on the left side. The pain is fepresented by a vertical force dF, acting through the C.G. of the prism BOB’ while the loss is represented by an equal and opposite force dF acting vertically downward through the centroid of ACA’. The couple due io these bueyant forces dFg tends to rotate the ship in the counter cl" ~ direction. Also the moment caused by the displacement of the centre of buoyancy from B te in the counter clockwise direction. Thus these two couples must be equal. 136 Couple Due to Wedges. Consider towards the right of the axis a small strip of thicknés. distance x from O as shown in Fig. 4.5 (5). The height of strip x x ZBOB’ = x0. {~ ZBOB’ = ZAOA’ = BMB,’ = @) +. Arca of strip = Height x Thickness = x0 x dx If Lis the length of the floating Body, then Volume of strip = Area x L ExXOXLX de ‘Weight of strip = pg x Volume = pgx OL dx Similarly, if a small strip of thickness cx at a distance x fiom O towaids the left of the axis is sonsidered, the weight of strip will be pgx® L dv. The two weights agp artined taeogaabite direction and hence constitute a couple. PDE created by AAZSwapnil nr a[ : Buoyancy and Floatation 135 Moment of this coupte = Weight of each strip x Distance between these two wei ghts = pgx OL dx [4+] = pgx OL dx x 2x = 2pgr” OL de <. Moment of the couple for the whole wedge =| 2pex OL dx 41) : Moment of couple due to shifting of centre of buoyancy from B to By = Fy BB, = Fyx BM x0 (‘2 BB, = BM x 0 if is very small} =WxEMxe {is Fg = W) (4.2) But these two couples are the same. Hence equating equations (4.1) and (4.2), we get W x BM x 0 = J 2pgx? @ Ldx WX BM x 8 = 2pge J 7Lde Wx BM = 2pg J Lax Now Ldx = Flemental area on the water line shawn in Fig. 4.6 (c) and = dA ‘“Wx'BM = 2pg J.2da. But from Be 4.5 (c) itis clear that 2 [ 2 dA is the second moment of area of the plan of the body — at water surface about the axis y-y. Therefore Wx BM= pgi {where I= 2 J x? dA) - BM = 28! e re But We Weight of the body = Weight of the fluid displaced by the body = pg x Volume of the fluid displaced by the body = pg x Volume of the body sub-merged in water =pgx¥ pe xt “ = fi. 43 pexv Vv ) GM = BM ~ BG = 4-86 Meta-centric height =GM= Z — BG. 4.4) Problem 4.7. A rectangular pontoon is 5 m long, 3m wide-and 1.20 m high. The depth of immer- sion of the pontoon is 0.80 m in sea water, If the centre of gravity is 0.6 m above the bottom of the pontoon, determine the meta-centsic height. The density for sea water = 1025 keén’. (Delhi University, 1992) Solution. Given : Dimension of pontoon =5mx3mx 120m Depth of immersion =0.8m scanned by Fahid PDF created by AAZSwapnil136_ Fluid Mechanics ] Distance. AG = 06 m Sam 4) Distance AB = 4 x Depth of immersion : i teed =4x.8=04m . & 9.6 m/*2™0.8m Density for sea water = 1025 kg/m? a nae } Meta-centre height GM, given by Equation (4.4) is Yes + GM = = -BG | where J = M,O, Inertia of the plan of the pontoon about y-y axis 5.0m at xsxpm= 5 mt | | 12 4 V = Volume of the body sub-merged in water Bat J - = : 2.0 PLAN AT WATER SURFACE Fig. 4.7 -0.2= s ~ 0.2 = 0.9375 -0.2 = 0.7375 m. Ans. Problem 4.8 A uniform body of size 3 m long x2 mwide x I m deep floats in water. What is the weight of the body if depth of immersion is 0.8 m ? Determine the meta-centric height also. Solution. Given ; 3.0m = + Dimension of body =3x2x] Depth of immersion = 0.8 m Find (i) Weight of body, W Gi) Meta-centric height, GM (@ Weight of Body, W = Weight of water displaced = pe x Volume of water displaced = 1000 x 9.81 X Volume of body in water = 1000 x 9.81 x.3x2x08N > 5 = 47088 N. Ans. ELEVATION (i) Meta-centric Height, GM ta AB Using equation (4.4), we get 138 . ous £-BG Vv where + /=M,O. about y-y axis of the plan of the body 1 3x2) 12 =2.0m* 12 ‘VW = Volume of body in water =3x2x08=48 m? BG = AG- ag = 12 & =05-04=01 - # om = 22 _ 01 =0.4167 - 0.1 = 0316 mmanbhy Fahid : 8 PDF created by AAZSwapnil140 Fluid Mechanics where f= M.O.L. of the plan of the body at water surface about y-y - 2x pte Bast! 6a V = Volume of the body in water = 3.9 m? GM = Bye = 423 = 1.019 - .423 = 0.596 m. Ans. "39 7 » 4.7 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A FLOATING AND SUB-MERGED BODIES A sub-merged or a floating body is said to be stable if it comes back to its original position after a slight disturbance. The relative position of the centre of gravity (G) and centre of buoyancy (B,) of a body determines the stability of a sub-merged body. 4.7.1 Stability of a Sub-merged Body. The position of centre of gravity and centre of buoy- ancy in case of a completely sub-merged body are fixed. Consider a balloon, which is completely sub- merged in air. Let the lower portion of the balloon contains heavier material, so that its centre of gravity is lower than its centre of buoyancy as shown in Fig. 4.12 (a). Let the weight of the balloon is W. The weight Wis acting through G, vertically in the downward direction, while the buoyant force F, is acting vertically up, through 8. For the equilibrium of the balloon W= Fg. Lf the balloon is given an angular displacement in the clockwise direction as showa in Fig. 4.12 (a), then Wand F, constitute a couple acting i lockwise direction and brings the battoon in the original position. Thus the balloon in the position, shown by Fig. 4.12 (a) is in stable equilibrium. PY Dp. BYG @ @) @ STABLE EQUILIBRIUM ‘UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM = NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM 4.12 Stabilities of submerged bodies. 142 {a) Stable Equilibrium, When W = Fy and point B is above G, the body is said to be ins equilibrium. ¢b) 4 iistable Equilibrium. If W = Fg. but the centre of buoyancy (B) is below centre of gravity (G), the body is in unstable equilibrium as shown in Fig. 4,12 (b), A slight displacement to the body, in the clockwise directiGn. gives the couple due to WV and Fg also in the clockwise direction. Thus the body does not return to its ‘original position and-hence the body is in unstable equilibrium, . (c) Neutral Equilibrium. If Fy = Wand B and G are at the same point, as shown in Fig. 4.12 (c), the body is said to be in Neutral Equilibrium. 4.7.2. Stability of Floating Body. The stability of a floating bodjuisdecéminédiftain the posi- tion of Meta-cEntse (Mf). In case of floating body, (He weight of the/tosy- iv equal kothe- weightofi) wa liquid displaced. SeE Buoyancy and Floatation 141 (a) Stable Equilibrium. Ifthe point M is above G, the floating body will be in stable equilibrium as shown in Fig. 4.13 (a). Ifa slight angular displacement is given to the floating body in the clockwise direction, the centre of buoyancy shifts from B to B, such that the vertical line through B, cuts at Af. ‘Then the buoyant force Fy through B, and weight W through G constitute a couple acting in the anti- clockwise disection and thus bringing the floating body in the original position. __. DISTURBING 7 COUPLE w. (a) Stable equilibrium Mis above G () Unstable equilibrium M is below G. Fig. 4.13 Stability of floating bodies. (©) Unstable Equilibrium. If the point M is below G, the floating body will be in unstable equilib- rium as shown in Fig, 4.13 (b). The disturbing couple is acting in the clockwise direction. The couple due to buoyant force Fp and W is also acting in the clockwise direction and thus overturning the floating body. (c) Neutral Eq jum. If the point M is at the centre of gravity of the body, the floating body will be in neutral equilibrium. Problem 4.12. A solid cylinder of diameter 4.0. has a héight of 4.0 m. Find the meta-centric height of the cylinder if the specific gravity of the material of eylinder = 0.6 and itis floating in water with its axis vertical. State whether the equilibrium is stable or unstable. Solution. Given : D=4m Height, h=4m Sp. gr. =06 Depth of cylinder in water = Sp. gr. xh .6 x 4,0= 2.4m Distance of centre of buoyancy (R) from A or AB= Distance of centre of gravity (G) from A. or . BG = AG - AB=20-12=08m Now the meta-centric height Gif is given by -BG v GM= scanned by Fahid PDF created by A:[142 Fluid Mechanics where. f= M.O.L of the plan of the body about y-y, R n =— D'=— x (4,0)! a ax 40) " V = Volume of cylinder in water = oo x D? x Depth of cylinder in water = ; x 42x24 m? t = - BG = 0.4167 - 0: 7 167 - 0. — ve sign means that the meta-centre (M) is below the centre of gravity (G). Thus the cylinder is in unstable equilibrium. Ans. Problem 4.13 A solid cylinder of 10 cm diameter and 40 cm tong, consists of two parts made of different materials. The first part at the base is 1.0 em long and of specific gravity = 6.0. The other part of the cytinder is made of the material having specific gravity 0.6. State, if it can float venicaily - 0.3833 m. Ans. in water. Solution, Given : = 10cm Length, 40 cm Length of Ist part, 1.0 cm Sp. gt, 0 Density of 1st part, Length of 2nd part, Sp. gr. .6 Density of 2nd part, 2 =0.6 x 1000 = 600 kg/m? The cylinder will float vertically in water if its meta-centric height GA is positive. To find meta-centric height, find the location of centre of gravity (G) and centre of buoyancy (B) of the combined solid cylinder. The distance of the centre of gravity of the solid cylinder from A is given as AG = [(Weight of 1st part x Distance of €.G. of Ist part from A) + (Weight of 2nd part of cylinder * x Distance of C.G. of 2nd part from A)] + [Weight of Ist part + weight of 2nd part] ( Dx ox 60x05)+(% D? x 39.0x06x (1.0 | (Fo x10x60+ x39%06) 4 4 .0 x 6.0 x05 +39. x.6 x (20.5) 10x 6.0 + 39.0x06 . 30+479.7 agamtined by Fahid Cancel [ ? in the Numerator and Denominator = <== = Saar BASii91 by AAZSWvapnil ee> 4.8 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD OF DETERMINATION [OF META-CENTRIC HEIGHT). i Sh The meta-centic height of aM F——pravity of the floating vessel. Let w | in Fig, 4.23 (a) and the vessel is Nosting. mn | (9 Featng by (0) Tite bey L423 Merecentric height. seanned by Fahid PDF created by AAZSwapnil — fe oa | eight of vessel including wy entre of gravity ofthe vessel ‘ttre of buoyancy of the vessel : “The weight w; is moved across the vessel towards right through 2 distance x as shown in Fig. 4.23 (b) ‘The vessel will be tilted. The angle of hee! @ is measured by means of a plumbline and a protractor || auached on the vessel. The new centre of gravity ofthe vessel will shift to Gj 2s the weight ve, has || been moved towards the right. Also the centre of buoyancy will change to B, a8 the vessel has tilted. || Under equilibrium. the moment caused by the movement ofthe load w, through a distance x must be equal 10 the moment caused by the shift ofthe centre of gravity from G to G,. Thus ! ‘The moment due to change of G=GG,xW= Wx GM tan @ ‘The moment due to movement of 9) =) w= WGM can @ Heoee om = wl 5 Wan ae Problem 4.19 4 ship 70m long and 10 m broad has a displacement af 19620 kN. A weig? 1343.35 EN is moved across the deck through a distance of 6 m. The ship is tilted through © 4 BA moment of inertia of the ship at water-tine about its fore and aft axis is 75% of M.O.!. circumscribing rectangle. The centre of buoyancy is 2.25 m below water-line. Find the meta-Cérm height and position of eentre of gravite of ship. Specific weight of sea water is 10104 N/m’ (Anna University, May, 1986) Solution. Given : Length of ship. L=70m Breadth of ship. b=10m Displacement, 19620 kN | Angle of heel, 6 75% of MOLL. of circumscribing rectangle w for sea-water Movable weight, Distance moved by ™1, Centre of buoyancy = 2.25 m below water surface Find (?) Meta-centric height, GM _ Mid) Position of centre of gravity. G. (3 Meta-centric height, GM is given by equation (4.5) wyx___ S4AISKN X60 Wand 19620KNxtan6® 2 BAR 3ISKN x60 79620 KN x.1051 (ii) Position of Centre of Gravity. G 1 = -6o be Vv GM= = 0999 m. Ans. where J = M.O.L of he ship at water-ine about yr sinned by Pail @ PDF created by AAZSwapnil& 4.9 OSCILLATION (ROLLING) OF A FLOATING BODY Consider a floating body. which is tilted through an angle by an overturning couple 2s shown in Fig. 4.26. Let the over-turning couple is suddenly removed. The bodyswdttietarl dscillattig. Thus, the PDE created by AAZSwapnil rr 154 Fluid Mechanics body will be in a state of oscillation as if suspended at the meta-centre Mf. This is similar 10 the case of a pendulum. The only force acting on the body is due to the restoring couple due to the weight W of the body force of buoyancy Fg. 6 2 Fig. 4.26 Restoring couple = Wx Distance GA Wx GM sin 8 i) This couple tries to decrease the angle a0 Angular acceleration of the body, =~ > = ve sign has been introduced as the restoring couple tries to decrease the angle @. Torque due to inertia = Moment of Inertia about ¥-¥ x Angular acceleration But where W = Weight of body, K = Radius of gyration about ¥-Y : 156 Inertia torque Eq ating (i) and (ii), we get Wx GM sin @= For small angle ®, sind = 0 Dividing by “p-- we get @ de : ; ‘The above equation is a differential equation of degree second. The solution is GM, @=C; sin ae x14 Cy cos Giginned by Fahid Y BBF created by AAZsw PhilDynamics of Fluid Flow >» 6.1 INTRODUCTION In the previous chapter, we studied the velocity and acceleration at 2 point in a fluid flow. without taking into consideration the forces causing the flow. This chapter includes the study of forces causing fluid flow. Thus dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion with the forces causing flow. The dynamic behaviour of the fluid flow is analysed by the Newton's secord law of motion, which relates the acceleration with the forces. The fluid is assumed to be incompressiale and non-viscous. 66.2 EQUATIONS OF MOTION According to Newton's second law of motion, the net force F, actingon a fluid elementin thedirec- tion of xis equal to mass of the fluid element multiplied by the accelerationa, in the x-direction, Thus mathematically. F,= ma, (6.1) In the fluid flow, the following forces are present : . (Fy gravity force. if) Fy, the pressure force. (iii) Fy, force due to viscosity. ‘iv) Fp force due to turbulence. (v) F,. force due to compressibility. Thus in equation (6.1), the net force F, = (Fp) + Ely t (Fo, + (Fe + Fale (i) If the force due to compressibility. F, is negligible, the resulsing net force Fy =(F). + (Fy, + (FO. + Fy ions of motion. quations of motion are known as Navier- and equation of motions are called Reyneld's equat ii) For flow. where (F,) is negligible, the resulting Stokes Equation. ; ii) If the flow is assumed to be ideal. viscous force (F,) is zero and equation of motions are known as Euler's equation of motion. . scanned by Fahid 256 PDF created by AAZSwapnil a —* Dynamics of Fluid Flow 257, » 6.3 EULER'S EQUATION OF MOTION This is equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken into considera- tion. This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a stream-tine a Consider a stream-fine in which flow is taking place in s-direction as shown in Fig: 6.1. Consider a cylindrical element of cross-section dA and lengtfidS. The forces acting on the cylindrical element are : 1. Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow. 2. Pressure force ( pt 2 as) dA opposite to the direction of flow. is } 3. Weight of element pgdAds. Let 6s the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight of element. The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of s must be equal to the mass of fluid, element x acceleration in the direction s. . 5 86! os pia (p +32 as) an ~ppaaseos 0 5 = pdAds xa, 6.2) a; where a, is the acceleration in the direction of 5. é - Now 2, 2S where vis function of sand > A av ds vf. / dt a ti / : oy Ifthe flow is steady, <> =0 or _ ae maa Z/ Substituting the value ofa, in equation (6.2) and simplifying the equation, we get pgs Ads ap 1 ) ey “Fr dsdA ~ 9g dds cos @ = pdAds x >— Fig. 6.1 Farces on a fluid element. Dividing by pdsda, of ® ap cov =0 pas " es But from Fig, 6.1 (8), we have cos 8= # is ap 163 1 ap “ ll oe oe epaceeiex pop @ a + gdz+vdv=0 or 2 4 ede + vdv=0 63) ° Equation (6.3) is known as Euler's equation of mation. scanned by Fahid PDF created by A: AZSwapnil