PHY-108 Module 03: Gauss’ law

MODULE 03: GAUSS’ LAW

(Dr. Rubaiyet I. Haque)

LECTURE 06
OUTLINE:
▪ Gauss’ Law

GAUSS’S LAW
Gauss’ law states that the net electric flux (Φ) penetrating across any closed surface (a Gaussian
surface) is proportional to the net electric charge (𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 ) enclosed by the surface.
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Φ ∝ 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 ⇒Φ= 𝑞 ⇒ 𝜀0 Φ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 (𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒) … … … (1)
𝜀0 𝑒𝑛𝑐
Here, 𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space.
Gauss’ law can also be written in terms of the electric field piercing the enclosing Gaussian surface:

𝜀0 ∮ E ⃗ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
⃗ ∙ dA (𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠’ 𝑙𝑎𝑤) … … … (2) ⃗]
[∵ Φ = ∯ 𝐸⃗ ∙ dA
𝑆

- Equations (1) and (2) hold only when the net charge is located in a vacuum or in air.

- The net charge 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 is the algebraic sum of all the enclosed positive and negative charges.
o Thus, the net charges enclosed can be positive, negative, or zero.
o The sign of the enclosed charge (𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 ) are also included in the equation that points towards
the nature of the net flux through the Gaussian surface.
▪ If net enclosed charge 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 is positive, the net flux is outward.
▪ If net enclosed charge 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 is negative, the net flux is inward.

- Charge outside the surface, no matter how large or how close it may be, is not included in the
term 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 in Gauss’ law.

- The exact form and location of the charges inside the Gaussian surface are also of no concern.
o The only things that matter are the magnitude and sign of the net enclosed charge.

- The electric field is resulting from all charges, both those inside and those outside the Gaussian
surface. This statement may seem to be inconsistent. But keep this in mind:
o The electric field due to a charge outside the Gaussian surface contributes zero net flux
through the surface, because field lines due to outside charges enter the surface as leave it.

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PHY-108 Module 03: Gauss’ law

Figure. Two charges, equal in magnitude but

opposite in sign, and the field lines that represent
their net electric field. Four Gaussian surfaces
are shown in cross section. Surface S1 encloses
the positive charge. Surface S2 encloses the
negative charge. Surface S3 encloses no charge.
Surface S4 encloses both charges and thus no net
charge.

Figure above presents two particles’ fields of charges equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, and
the field lines describing the electric fields the particles set up in the surrounding space. Cross-section
of four Gaussian surfaces is also shown.

Surface 𝑺𝟏 . The electric field is outward for all points on this surface. Thus, the flux of the electric
field through this surface is positive, and so is the net charge within the surface, as Gauss’ law
requires. (Since flux is positive, so the 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 is positive as well.)

Surface 𝑺𝟐 . The electric field is inward for all points on this surface. Thus, the flux of the electric
field through this surface is negative and so is the enclosed charge, as Gauss’ law requires.

Surface 𝑺𝟑 . This surface encloses no charge, and thus 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0. Gauss’ law requires that the net flux
of the electric field through this surface be zero. All the field lines pass entirely through the surface,
entering it at one end and leaving at the other end.

Surface 𝑺𝟒 . This surface encloses no net charge, because the enclosed positive and negative charges
have equal magnitudes. Gauss’ law requires that the net flux of the electric field through this surface
be zero. That is reasonable because there are as many field lines leaving surface 𝑆4 as entering it.

If an enormous charge Q brought up close to surface 𝑆4 , the pattern of the field lines would certainly
change,
- But the net flux for each of the four Gaussian surfaces would not change.
- Thus, the value of Q would not enter Gauss’ law in any way, because Q lies outside all four of
the Gaussian surfaces that we are considering.

CHECKPOINT: The figure shows three

situations in which a Gaussian cube sits in an
electric field. The arrows and the values
indicate the directions of the field lines and the
magnitudes (in 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 /𝐶) of the flux through
the six sides of each cube.
In which situation does the cube enclose (a) a positive net charge, (b) a negative net charge, and
(c) zero net charge?
ANSWER: (a) 2; (b) 3; (c) 1

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PHY-108 Module 03: Gauss’ law

GAUSS’S LAW AND COULOMB’S LAW

Gauss’ law can be applied in finding the electric field of a charged particle. While Coulomb's Law
describes the force between point charges, Gauss's Law relates the distribution of charges to the
resulting electric field.
- The field has spherical symmetry (field depends on distance 𝑟 from particle but not the direction).
- This symmetry can be used by enclosing the particle in a Gaussian sphere that is centered on the
particle, as shown in Figure for a particle with positive charge +𝑞.
- As a result, at any point on the sphere (all points are at the same distance 𝑟) the electric field has
the same magnitude 𝐸 = |𝐸⃗ |.

Initially, a patch element on the surface is selected and its area

vector perpendicular to the patch and directed outward is drawn.
From the symmetry of the situation, the electric field 𝐸⃗ at the patch
is also radially outward and thus at angle 𝜃 = 0 with 𝑑𝐴. So,
Gauss’ law can be rewrite as,

𝜀0 ∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0 ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝜀0 ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴 = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐

Here, 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑞. The field magnitude E is the same/ constant at

Figure: A spherical Gaussian
every patch element. surface centered on a particle with
charge q.
Since, the total area 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 . We get,

𝜀0 ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝐴 = 𝜀0 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = 𝑞

1 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Which is same as coulomb’s law.

CHECKPOINT: There is a certain net flux Φ through a Gaussian sphere of radius 𝑟 enclosing an
isolated charged particle. Suppose the enclosing Gaussian surface is changed to (a) a larger
Gaussian sphere, (b) a Gaussian cube with edge length equal to 𝑟, and (c) a Gaussian cube with
edge length equal to 2𝑟. In each case, is the net flux through the new Gaussian surface greater than,
less than, or equal to Φ?
ANSWER: (a) equal; (b) equal; (c) equal

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PHY-108 Module 03: Gauss’ law

PROBLEM: Figure shows, in cross section, a

plastic, spherical shell with uniform charge
𝑄 = −16𝑒 and radius 𝑅 = 10 𝑐𝑚. A particle
with charge 𝑞 = +5𝑒 is at the center. What is
the electric field (magnitude and direction) at
(a) point 𝑃1 at radial distance 𝑟1 = 6.00 𝑐𝑚
and (b) point 𝑃2 at radial distance 𝑟2 =
12.0 𝑐𝑚?

Figure (a) A charged plastic spherical shell encloses a charged particle. (b) To find the electric field at 𝑃1 , arrange
for the point to be on a Gaussian sphere. The electric field pierces outward. The area vector for the patch element
is outward. (c) 𝑃2 is on a Gaussian sphere, is inward, and dA is still outward.
ANSWER: Because the situation in Fig. a has spherical symmetry, we can apply Gauss’ law.
(a) To find the field at point 𝑃1 , we construct a Gaussian sphere with 𝑃1 on its surface and thus with
a radius of 𝑟1 .
- Because the charge enclosed by the Gaussian sphere is positive, the electric flux through the
surface must be positive and thus outward.
- So, the electric field pierces the surface outward and, because of the spherical symmetry, must
be radially outward, as drawn in Fig. b. That figure does not include the plastic shell because
the shell is not enclosed by the Gaussian sphere.

Now, consider a patch element on the sphere at 𝑃1 . Its area vector is radially outward (it must
always be outward from a Gaussian surface). Thus, the angle 𝜃 between 𝐸⃗ and 𝑑𝐴 is zero. We get,

𝜀0 ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0 ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝜀0 ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐

We know that the surface area of a sphere, 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 .

Therefore, 𝜀0 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
Since, 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 5𝑒 and 𝑟 = 𝑟1 = 6.00 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 5(1.60 × 10−19 𝐶)
𝐸= = 2 = 2.0 × 10−6 𝑁/𝐶
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝐶
4𝜋 (8.85 × 10−12 ) (0.06 𝑚)2
𝑁. 𝑚2

(b) To find the electric field at 𝑃2 , we follow the same procedure by constructing a Gaussian sphere
with 𝑃2 on its surface. This time, however, the net charge enclosed by the sphere is,
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑞 + 𝑄 = 5𝑒 + (−16𝑒) = −11𝑒
Because the net charge is negative, the electric field vectors on the sphere’s surface pierce inward
(Fig. c), the angle 𝜃 between 𝐸⃗ and 𝑑𝐴 is 180°. Therefore,

𝜀0 ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0 ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 180° = −𝜀0 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝐴 = −𝜀0 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐

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PHY-108 Module 03: Gauss’ law

𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝐸=− =− [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 ]
𝜀0 𝐴 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Since, 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = −11𝑒 and 𝑟 = 𝑟2 = 12.00 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 (−11)(1.60 × 10−19 𝐶)
𝐸=− =− 2 = 1.10 × 10−6 𝑁/𝐶
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝐶
4𝜋 (8.85 × 10−12 ) (0.12 𝑚)2
𝑁. 𝑚2

PROBLEM: A nonuniform electric field given by 𝐸⃗ = 3.0𝑥𝑖̇̂ + 4.0𝑗̇̂ pierces the Gaussian cube
shown in Figure a (𝐸 is in newtons per coulomb and x is in meters). What is the net charge enclosed
by the Gaussian cube?

ANSWER:
⃗ = ∫(3.0𝑥𝑖̇̂ + 4.0𝑗̇̂). (𝑑𝐴𝑖̇̂)
For Right Face: The flux Φ through the right face is, Φ = ∫ 𝐸⃗ ∙ dA

= ∫(3.0𝑥 𝑑𝐴 + 0) = 3.0 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝐴

Φr = 3.0 ∫(3.0) 𝑑𝐴 = 9.0 ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = 9.0 𝐴 [since, 𝑥 = 3.0 𝑚]

𝑁
𝛷𝑟 = (9.0 ) (4.0 𝑚2 ) = 36 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 /𝐶 [Here, 𝐴 = 4.0 𝑚2 ]
𝐶

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PHY-108 Module 03: Gauss’ law

For Left Face: Two factors change. (1) The element area vector 𝑑𝐴 points in the negative direction
of the x axis, and thus 𝑑𝐴 = −𝑑𝐴𝑖̇̂ (Fig. d). (2) On the left face, 𝑥 = 1.0 𝑚. With these changes,
we find that the flux 𝛷𝑙 through the left face is, 𝛷𝑙 = −12 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 /𝐶
For Top Face: For the top face 𝑑𝐴 points in the positive direction of the y axis, and thus 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝐴𝑗̇̂
(Fig. e). The flux 𝛷𝑡 is, Φ = ∫(3.0𝑥𝑖̇̂ + 4.0𝑗̇̂). (𝑑𝐴𝑗̇̂) = ∫(0 + 4.0 𝑑𝐴) = 4.0 ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = 16 𝑁 ∙
𝑚2 /𝐶.
For Bottom Face: For the top face 𝑑𝐴 points in the positive direction of the y axis, and thus 𝑑𝐴 =
−𝑑𝐴𝑗̇̂ (Fig. e). The flux 𝛷𝑡 is, Φ = ∫(3.0𝑥𝑖̇̂ + 4.0𝑗̇̂). (−𝑑𝐴𝑗̇̂) = ∫(0 − 4.0 𝑑𝐴) = −4.0 ∫ 𝑑𝐴 =
−16 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 /𝐶.
For Front Face: For the top face 𝑑𝐴 points in the positive direction of the y axis, and thus 𝑑𝐴 =
𝑑𝐴𝑘̂ (Fig. e). The flux 𝛷𝑡 is, Φ = ∫(3.0𝑥𝑖̇̂ + 4.0𝑗̇̂). (𝑑𝐴𝑘̂ ) = ∫(0 + 0) = 0 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 /𝐶.
For Back Face: For the top face 𝑑𝐴 points in the positive direction of the y axis, and thus 𝑑𝐴 =
−𝑑𝐴𝑘̂ (Fig. e). The flux 𝛷𝑡 is, Φ = ∫(3.0𝑥𝑖̇̂ + 4.0𝑗̇̂). (−𝑑𝐴𝑘̂) = ∫(0 − 0) = 0 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 /𝐶.
Therefore, the total flux through the six sides of the cube is
Φ = (36 − 12 + 16 − 16 + 0 + 0) 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶 = 24 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
Enclosed charge by the cube, 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜀0 Φ = (8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁. 𝑚2 )(24 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶)
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 2.1 × 10−10 𝐶
Thus, the cube encloses a net positive charge.

A CHARGED ISOLATED CONDUCTOR

A charged isolated conductor refers to a conductive object that carries an electric charge and is
completely surrounded by an insulating material or vacuum, so it is not influenced by external electric
fields. When a conductor is isolated in this manner, it has some specific characteristics due to its
interaction with the electric charge it carries and the surrounding environment.
- An excess charge on an isolated conductor is located entirely on the outer surface of the conductor.
o This is because charges within a conductor repel each other and move to the surface of the
conductor in order to minimize their mutual repulsion.
o The charges distribute themselves uniformly on the outer surface of the conductor.
- The internal electric field of a charged isolated conductor is zero (𝐸 = 0).
- The external electric field (at nearby points) is perpendicular to the surface; and has a magnitude
that depends on the surface charge density (𝜎). It is given by,
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀0
o Any electric field applied from the outside will cause the charges to redistribute themselves
until the electric field inside becomes zero.

NOTE: Gauss’ law permits us to prove an important theorem about conductors:

“If an excess charge is placed on an isolated conductor, that charge will move entirely to the surface
of the conductor. None of the excess charge will be found within the body of the conductor.”

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PHY-108 Module 03: Gauss’ law

Figure shows, in cross section, an isolated lump of copper hanging from an insulating thread and
having an excess charge q. A Gaussian surface is placed just inside the actual surface of the conductor.
- The electric field inside this conductor must be zero (𝐸 = 0).
o Otherwise, the field would exert forces on the conduction
electrons, and thus current would always exist within a
conductor.
o As there is no such perpetual current in an isolated conductor,
the internal electric field is zero.
▪ An internal electric field does appear as a conductor is Figure A lump of copper with a
charge 𝑞 hangs from an
being charged. However, the added charge quickly
insulating thread. A Gaussian
distributes itself in such a way that the net internal electric surface is placed within the
field the vector sum of the electric fields due to all the metal, just inside the actual
charges, both inside and outside is zero. The movement of surface.
charge then ceases, because the net force on each charge is
zero; the charges are then in electrostatic equilibrium.
- If 𝐸⃗ is zero everywhere inside our copper conductor, it must be zero for all points on the Gaussian
surface. Because that surface, though close to the surface of the conductor, is definitely inside the
conductor.
o Thus, the flux through the Gaussian surface must be zero, Φ = 𝐸𝐴 = 0.
o According to Gauss’ law, the net charge inside the Gaussian surface must also be zero.
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜀0 Φ = 0
- Since, the excess charge is not inside the Gaussian surface, it must be outside that surface, which
means it must lie on the actual surface of the conductor.

ISOLATED CONDUCTOR WITH A CAVITY

Figure shows the hanging conductor with a cavity that is totally
within the conductor. A Gaussian surface is then drawn surrounding
the cavity, close to its surface but inside the conducting body.
- Because 𝐸⃗ = 0 inside the conductor, there can be no flux through
this new Gaussian surface.
- Thus, from Gauss’ law, that surface can enclose no net charge.
- So, there is no net charge on the cavity walls; all the excess charge Figure A Gaussian surface lies
remains on the outer surface of the conductor, as in Fig. a. within the metal, close to the
cavity surface of the lump of
- Electric field would remain zero even for the thin shell of charge. copper.
- Thus, the electric field is set up by the excess charges, and not by the conductor.

EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD OUTSIDE THE ISOLATED CONDUCTOR

The excess charge on an isolated conductor moves entirely to the conductor’s outer surface.
- However, unless the conductor is spherical, the charge does not distribute itself uniformly.
o The surface charge density 𝜎 varies over the surface of any nonspherical conductor.
o This variation makes the determination of electric field set up by surface charges very difficult.

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PHY-108 Module 03: Gauss’ law

The external electric field refers to an electric field that is present in the space surrounding charged
objects, but not within those objects themselves. The electric field just outside the surface of a
conductor can be determined using Gauss’ law.
Let us consider, a tiny cylindrical Gaussian surface is
imagined to be partially embedded as shown in Figure.
Where one end cap is fully inside the conductor, the
other end (which is flat surface) is fully outside, and the
cylinder is perpendicular to the conductor’s surface.
- The electric field 𝐸⃗ at and just outside the
conductor’s surface must also be perpendicular to
that surface.

The total flux through the Gaussian surface is calculated

by summing,
- There is no flux through the internal end cap as the
electric field within the conductor is zero. Figure (a) Perspective and (b) side view of a
portion of a large, isolated conductor with excess
- There is no flux through the curved surface of the positive charge on its surface with a (closed)
cylinder, because internally (in the conductor) there cylindrical Gaussian surface, embedded
is no electric field and externally the electric field is perpendicularly in the conductor, encloses some
parallel to the curved portion of the Gaussian of the charge.
surface.
- The only flux through the Gaussian surface is that through the external end cap, where 𝐸⃗ is
perpendicular to the plane of the cap. Considering that the cap area 𝐴 is small enough that the field
magnitude 𝐸 is constant over the cap. Then the flux through the cap is Φ = 𝐸𝐴, and that is the net
flux Φ through the Gaussian surface.
- The charge 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 enclosed by the Gaussian surface lies on the conductor’s surface in an area 𝐴. If
𝜎 is the charge per unit area, then 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 is equal to 𝜎𝐴. Therefore, Gauss’ law becomes,
𝜎
𝜀0 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜎𝐴 ⇒𝐸= (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)
𝜀0
Thus, the magnitude of the electric field just outside a conductor is proportional to the surface charge
density on the conductor. The sign of the charge gives us the direction of the field.
- If the charge on the conductor is positive, the electric field is directed away from the conductor.
- It is directed toward the conductor if the charge is negative, as shown in Figure.

PROBLEM: Figure a shows a cross section

of a spherical metal shell of inner radius 𝑅. A
particle with a charge of −5.0 𝜇𝐶 is located at
a distance 𝑅/2 from the center of the shell. If
the shell is electrically neutral, what are the
(induced) charges on its inner and outer
surfaces? Are those charges uniformly
distributed? What is the field pattern inside
and outside the shell?
Figure (a) A negatively charged particle is located within a spherical metal shell that is electrically neutral. (b) As
a result, positive charge is nonuniformly distributed on the inner wall of the shell, and an equal amount of negative
charge is uniformly distributed on the outer wall.

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PHY-108 Module 03: Gauss’ law

ANSWER: Figure b shows a cross section of a spherical Gaussian surface within the metal, just
outside the inner wall of the shell.
- Electric field must be zero inside the metal (and thus on the Gaussian surface inside the metal).
- Therefore, the electric flux through the Gaussian surface must also be zero.
- Gauss’ law then tells us that the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface must be zero.
a) With a particle of charge −5.0 𝜇𝐶 within the shell, a charge of +5.0 𝜇𝐶 must lie on the inner
wall of the shell in order that the net enclosed charge be zero.
✓ If the particle were centered, this positive charge would be uniformly distributed along the
inner wall.
✓ However, since the particle is off-center, the distribution of positive charge is skewed, as
suggested by Fig. b, because the positive charge tends to collect on the section of the inner
wall nearest the (negative) particle.
b) Because the shell is electrically neutral, its inner wall can have a charge of +5.0 𝜇𝐶 only if
electrons, with a total charge of −5.0 𝜇𝐶, leave the inner wall and move to the outer wall.
✓ There they spread out uniformly, as is also suggested by Fig. b.
✓ This distribution of negative charge is uniform because the shell is spherical and because the
skewed distribution of positive charge on the inner wall cannot produce an electric field in
the shell to affect the distribution of charge on the outer wall.
✓ Furthermore, these negative charges repel one another.
c) The field lines inside and outside the shell are shown approximately in Fig. b.
✓ All the field lines intersect the shell and the particle perpendicularly.
✓ Inside the shell, pattern of field lines is skewed due to skew of positive charge distribution.
✓ Outside the shell the pattern is the same as if the particle were centered.
✓ In fact, this would be true no matter where inside the shell the particle happened to be located.

PROBLEM 23-17: A uniformly charged conducting sphere of 1.2 𝑚 diameter has surface charge
density 8.1 𝜇𝐶/𝑚2 . Find (a) the net charge on the sphere and (b) the total electric flux leaving the
surface.

PROBLEM 23-18: The electric field just above the surface of the charged conducting drum of a
photocopying machine has a magnitude 𝐸 of 2.3 × 105 𝑁/𝐶. What is the surface charge density
on the drum?

PROBLEM 23-19: Space vehicles traveling through Earth’s radiation belts can intercept a
significant number of electrons. The resulting charge buildup can damage electronic components
and disrupt operations. Suppose a spherical metal satellite 1.3 𝑚 in diameter accumulates 2.4 𝜇𝐶
of charge in one orbital revolution. (a) Find the resulting surface charge density. (b) Calculate the
magnitude of the electric field just outside the surface of the satellite, due to the surface charge.

PROBLEM 23-21: An isolated conductor has net charge +10 × 10−6 𝐶 and a cavity with a
particle of charge 𝑞 = +3.0 × 10−6 𝐶. What is the charge on (a) the cavity wall and (b) the outer
surface?