USE OF MODELS

What is a scientific model?

− Representation of an idea, an object or even a process or a system

that is used to describe and explain phenomena that cannot be

experienced directly

− Visual way of linking theory with experiment, and they guide research

by being simplified representations of an imagined reality that enable

predictions to be developed and tested by experiment

− Representation of objects, systems or events and are used as tools

for understanding the natural world with the use familiar objects to

represent unfamiliar things.

− Helps visualize, or picture in the mind, something that is difficult to see

or understand

What models can represent?

MODELS CAN REPRESENT... EXAMPLE

Objects that are too small to see Model of an atom or a cell

Objects that are too big to see Model of the planets

Objects that no longer exist Model of a dinosaur

Objects that have not yet been invented Prototype models such as a model of a robot

Events that occur too slowly to see Model of mountain formation

Events that occur too fast to see Model to predict an earthquake

Events that have yet to happen Models of weather systems

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MODELS

1. Physical Models

− Smaller and simpler representations of the thing being studied

− Tangible and often three-dimensional.

− Examples: Human skeleton, globe, map

2. Conceptual Models

− Tie together many ideas to explain a phenomenon or event

− Mental models that help to understand abstract concepts

− Examples: atom model, molecular model

3. Mathematical /Computer Models

− Sets of mathematical equations and principles that

− Take into account many factors to represent a phenomenon

− Usually done on computers and extremely prevalent in physics

and engineering.
 − Examples: trajectory of spacecraft, maxwell's equations (four

partial differential equations) applied to telegraphic

communications

4. Simulation Models

− Use algorithms and equations to simulate behaviors over time

− Examples: weather forecasting, predicting the spread of diseases

BUILDING A MODEL

Scientists start with a small amount of data and build up a better and better

representation of the phenomena they are explaining or using for prediction as

time goes on. These days, many models are likely to be mathematical and are

run on computers, rather than being a visual representation, but the principle is

the same.

USES OF MODEL

1. Test ideas

▪ In testing scientists’ ideas, it is much easier to work with a model

than with a whole system.

2. Make and test predictions

▪ Predict the future like trying to determine what types of changes

can we expect as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

3. Use for communication

▪ Communicate observations and ideas to other people help

visualize ideas or abstract concepts.

4. Represent things

▪ Represent things ae very small or very large

 ▪ Can help picture things in the mind.

5. Build scientific knowledge

▪ Help illustrate and explain scientific theories

▪ Help support scientific theories or prove them to be wrong

▪ Can be changed or replaced as new information is learned

6. Save time, money, and lives

▪ Working and testing with models can be safer, quicker, and less

expensive than using the real thing

LIMITATIONS OF MODEL

1. Details 2. Approximations 3. Accuracy

→ Cannot include all → Include some → In order to make

the details of the approximations as a models simplistic

objects that they convenient way to enough to

represent. describe something that communicate ideas,

happens in nature some accuracy is lost

→ For example, maps

cannot include all the → Approximations are → For example, ball

details of the features not exact, so predictions and stick models of

of the earth such as based on them tend to atoms do not show all

mountains, valleys, be a little bit different the details that

etc. from what you actually scientists know about

observe the structure of the

atom.

→ Do not behave

exactly like the things

they represent

REMEMBER

− Scientific models are representations of systems that help explain and

visualize scientific processes and natural phenomena.

− Models can take different forms, such as representational, descriptive,

spatial, mathematical, and computational models.

− Scientific models have limitations and may not capture all the details

or accurately represent reality.

 − Models can change over time due to new discoveries and the need for

updated or revised information.

THE PARTICLE MODEL AND CHANGES OF STATE

Each Substance Has Its Own Unique Particles

Atomic Structure

Each pure substance, such as water, iron, or carbon dioxide, is composed of its

own unique type of particle, known as an atom or molecule. These particles

have a specific arrangement and number of subatomic particles (protons,

neutrons, and electrons) that define the chemical and physical properties of the

substance.
Particle Composition

For example, a water molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one

oxygen atom, while a molecule of carbon dioxide contains one carbon atom and

two oxygen atoms. The unique composition and arrangement of these particles

give each substance its distinctive characteristics.

Unique Properties

The particle model explains why different substances have different properties,

such as melting and boiling points, density, and chemical reactivity. These

properties are determined by the specific nature of the particles that make up

the substance.

PARTICLE PROPERTIES

1. Constant Motion

− Particles are always moving, even in solids.

2. Spaces Between

− There are empty spaces between the particles.

3. Attraction

− Particles attract each other with varying strengths.

4. Temperature Effect

− Particles move faster as temperature increases.

THE THREE STATES OF MATTER

Solid, Liquid, and Gas

The particle model of matter explains the three fundamental states of matter:

solid, liquid, and gas. The arrangement and motion of the particles determine

the properties and behavior of each state, from the rigid

structure of solids to the free-flowing nature of gases.

Particles in Solids

1. Densely Packed

− Particles in solids are tightly packed together.

2. Vibrate in Place

− Particles vibrate strongly but do not change position.

3. Strong Attraction

− Particles in solids have very strong attractive forces.

Solids in Everyday Life

1. Furniture

− Solid materials like wood, metal, and plastic are used to

construct furniture, such as tables, chairs, and desks.

2. Buildings

− Bricks, concrete, and steel are examples of solid materials

used in the construction of buildings and infrastructure.

 3. Ice Cubes

− Frozen water in the form of ice cubes is a solid that can be

used to chill and flavor beverages.

4. Jewelry

− Precious gems and minerals, like diamonds and gemstones,

are solid materials prized for their beauty and durability.

Particles in Liquids

Particles in liquids are closely packed but can slide pass each other.

1. Moderately Mobile

− Particles in liquids can move around and change position

2. Moderate Attraction

− Particles in liquids have moderate attractive forces between

them.

Liquid State Examples

1. Water

− Water is a ubiquitous example of a liquid, with a definite

volume but no fixed shape, able to flow and take the form of

its container.

2. Honey

− Honey's thick, viscous consistency is characteristic of the

liquid state, maintaining a shape when poured but easily

flowing and adapting to its container.

3. Mercury

− Mercury is a unique liquid metal that flows freely, taking the

shape of its container, and is used in various scientific and

 industrial applications.

Liquids in Everyday Life

1. Water

− Water is the most ubiquitous liquid, used for drinking,

cooking, cleaning, and various other everyday activities.

2. Beverages

− Liquids like coffee, tea, and juices are commonly consumed

as refreshments and sources of hydration.

 3. Cooking

− Liquids like oil, vinegar, and various sauces are essential

ingredients in cooking and food preparation.

Particles in Gases

1. Widely Spaced

− Particles in gases are far apart with a lot of empty space

between them.

2. Weak Attraction

− Particles in gases have very weak attractive forces between

them.

3. Highly Mobile

− Particles in gases move rapidly in random directions.

Gaseous State Examples

1. Air

− The invisible, odorless, and colorless gas that surrounds us,

air is a prime example of the gaseous state of matter.

2. Steam

− When water is heated, it transforms into steam, a gaseous

form that expands to fill the available space.

3. Helium

− Helium is a lightweight, inert gas used in balloons, airships,

and various scientific and medical applications.

Gases in Everyday Life

1. Breathing

− The gaseous exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is

essential for human and animal life

2. Cooking

− Gases like natural gas and propane are used as fuel sources

for cooking and heating.

3. Balloons

− Lighter-than-air gases, such as helium, are used to fill and lift

balloons for various celebrations and events.

Applying the Particle Model

1. Explain Observations

− The particle model can be used to explain many physical

properties and changes in matter.

2. Predict Behavior

− Understanding the model allows us to predict how

substances will behave in different conditions.

3. Guide Experimentation

− The particle model provides a framework for designing and

interpreting scientific experiments.

Melting and Boiling Points

1. Melting Point

− The temperature at which a solid transitions to a liquid state.

2. Boiling Point

− The temperature at which a liquid transitions to a gas state.

3. Factors

− Melting and boiling points depend on the strength of

intermolecular forces between particles.

Changes of State

1. Melting

− Heating causes particles in a solid to gain enough energy to

break free from their fixed positions and positions and

become a liquid.

2. Evaporation

− Further heating causes the particles in a liquid to overcome

their moderate attractive forces and become and become a

gas.
 3. Condensation

− Cooling causes the fast-moving gaseous particles to slow

down and recombine into a liquid state. state.

4. Freezing

− Further cooling causes the liquid particles to lose enough

energy to become tightly packed in a solid in a solid state.

Sublimation and Deposition

1. Sublimation

− The direct transition of a solid to a gas, bypassing the liquid

state.

2. Deposition

− The direct transition of a gas to gas to a solid, bypassing the

liquid state.

Examples

− Deposition: Frost on windows.

Diffusion and Osmosis

1. Diffusion

− The movement of particles from an area of high

concentration to an area an area of low concentration.

2. Osmosis

− The movement of water molecules through a semi-

permeable membrane from an area of low solute

concentration to an area of high solute concentration.

3. Applications

− Diffusion and osmosis are important in biological processes

like gas exchange and nutrient transport.

Reversible Changes

1. Phase Changes

− Changes of state between solid, liquid, and gas are

reversible processes.
 2. Energy Transfers

− Adding or removing energy drives the transitions between

states of matter.

3. Particle Behavior

− The changes in particle motion and spacing determine the

observable properties of each state.

PLANNING, FOLLOWING, AND RECORDING SCIENTIFIC

INVESTIGATION

Scientific Investigation

A step-by-step process scientists use to answer questions about the

world

1. Aim or Problem

− The question you want to answer through your

experiment

2. Materials and Equipment

− The tools and supplies you need to conduct your

experiment

3. Method or Procedure

− The detailed plan outlining exactly what you will do,

step- by-step, to test your question

4. Data

− The information you collect during your experiment

(observations, measurements)

5. Results
 − The findings of your experiment, presented using

tables, charts, or graphs

6. Conclusion

− Your explanation of what your results mean and how

they answer your initial question

Steps of Scientific Investigation

1. Aim or Problem

− This is the heart of your investigation

− It is the question you want to answer through your experiment

− A good aim is:

✓ Clear and specific

✓ Answerable through an experiment

✓ Measurable

2. Materials and Equipment

− This is the list of tools and supplies you need to conduct your

experiment

− Consider these points:

✓ Adequacy

✓ Safety

✓ Availability

3. Method or Procedures

− This is the detailed step-by-step plan for conducting your

experiment

− A good method should be:

✓ clear and concise

✓ sequential

✓ repeatable
4. Results including Data

− This documents the findings of your experiment. It includes

all the information collected during the investigation

− Data can be presented in various ways:

✓ Observations

✓ Measurements

✓ Tables and charts

✓ Graphs
5. Conclusions

− This is where you interpret your results and answer your

initial question (aim)

− A good conclusion should be:

✓ Based on evidence

✓ Explanatory

✓ Supports or rejects

6. Hypothesis

An educated guess or a prediction about the outcome of an

experiment based on your observations and prior knowledge.

Example:

Plants placed in a sunny location will grow taller than plants

placed in the shade.

Variables

Factors that can change in an experiment

a. Independent Variable

− Factor you deliberately change or manipulate in your

experiment to see its effect on something else (ex. Amount

of sunlight)

b. Dependent/ Controlled Variable

− Factor that you keep the same throughout the experiment to

ensure a fair test (amount of water both plants receive, pot

size, etc.
Scenario: A new sunscreen has been developed that is supposed

to be more effective in preventing sunburn. 30 participants spray

one arm with the new formula and the other arm with the leading

formula. After 4 hours in the sun, their skin is evaluated for any

redness

Independent variable (manipulated) - new sunscreen

Dependent variable (responding) - redness

Scenario: One chicken is injected with a growth hormone while

another chicken is not injected. Both chickens are weighed after a

year.

Independent variable (manipulated) – growth hormone

Dependent variable (responding) – weight

Scenario: James sleeps 9 hours the night before his Science

exam. His twin John has the same exam and sleeps 6

hours the night before the test. Afterwards, they compare their

scores.
Independent variable (manipulated) – hours of sleep / length of

sleep

Dependent variable (responding) – score

Scenario: A bug repellant is sprayed on the right hand while the

other hand is not sprayed. The number of bug bites is recorded after

2 hours.

Independent variable (manipulated) – bug repellant

Dependent variable (responding) – bug bites

SOLUTIONS, SOLUBILITY, AND CONCENTRATION

Definition of Terms:

1. Solution - a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more

substances.

2. Solute - is the substance that is dissolved in the solvent to

form a solution.

3. Solvent - is the dissolving medium that dissolves the solute

to form a solution.

4. Solubility - is the ability of a substance (solute) to dissolve in

a given solvent to form a solution.

Factors affecting solubility:

1. Temperature: As temperature increases, the solubility of

most solids and gases in liquids increases.

2. Pressure: Increasing pressure generally increases the

solubility of gases in liquids.

3. Polarity: Polar solutes tend to dissolve in polar solvents, and

non-polar solutes tend to dissolve in non-polar solvents.

Measuring concentration

Concentration: The measure of the amount of solute dissolved in a

given amount of solvent or solution.

Different ways to express concentration:

1. Molarity: Moles of solute per liter of solution.

2. Molality: Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

3. Mole fraction: The ratio of the moles of solute to the total

moles of all components in a solution.

Colligative Properties

− Colligative properties: Properties that depend on the

concentration of the solute, not its identity.

Boiling Point Elevation

− The presence of a solute in a solution increases the boiling

point of the solution compared to the pure solvent

− The extent of the boiling point elevation depends on the

concentration of the solute.

Freezing Point Depression

− The presence of a solute in a solution decreases the freezing

point of the solution compared to the pure solvent.

− The extent of the freezing point depression depends on the

concentration of the solute.

Osmotic Pressure

− Osmotic pressure is the pressure that must be applied to a

solution to prevent the flow of water molecules through a

semipermeable membrane.

− Osmotic pressure depends on the concentration of the solute

in the solution.
Multiple Choices:

1. Which of the following is a characteristic of a solution?

A. Heterogeneous mixture

B. Solute particles larger than 1 nanometer

C. Separation of components over time

D. Homogeneous mixture

2. The solubility of a gas in a liquid typically __________ as the

temperature increases.

A. Increases

B. Decreases

C. Remains the same

D. Depends on the pressure

3. Which of the following is a colligative property of solutions?

A. Boiling point elevation

B. Density

C. pH

D. Both a and b

4. The measure of the amount of solute dissolved in a given amount

of solvent or solution is known as:

A. Molarity

B. Molality

C. Mole fraction

D. All of the above

5. Osmotic pressure is the pressure that must be applied to a solution

to:

A. Increase the boiling point

B. Decrease the freezing point

C. Prevent the flow of water molecules through a

semipermeable membrane

D. Increase the solubility of the solute

6. Which of the following statements about solutions is true?

A. Solutions are always clear and transparent.

B. Solutions are stable and do not separate into distinct layers.

C. Solutions have a uniform composition throughout.

D. All of the above

7. Which of the following is the most accurate way to express the

concentration of a solution?

A. Grams of solute per liter of solution

B. Milliliters of solute per milliliters of solution

C. Moles of solute per liter of solution

D. Grams of solute per grams of solution

8. The decrease in the freezing point of a solution compared to the

pure solvent is known as:

A. Boiling point elevation

B. Freezing point depression

C. Osmotic pressure

D. Solubility

9. Which of the following is NOT a factor that affects the solubility of a

substance?

A. Temperature

B. Pressure

C. pH

D. Polarity

10. Which of the following statements about the solute in a solution is

true?

A. The solute is the major component in the solution.

B. The solute particles are larger than 1 nanometer in diameter.

C. The solute particles are evenly distributed throughout the

solvent.

D. The solute particles settle out and separate from the solution

over time.

Answers key

1. d) Homogeneous mixture

2. b) Decreases

3. a) Boiling point elevation

4. d) All of the above

5. c) Prevent the flow of water molecules through a

 semipermeable membrane

6. d) All of the above

7. c) Moles of solute per liter of solution

8. b) Freezing point depression

9. c) pH

10. c) The solute particles are evenly distributed throughout the

solvent.
SATURATED AND UNSATURATED SOLUTIONS

Definition of Solubility:

− Solubility is the ability of a substance (solute) to dissolve in a

solvent, forming a homogeneous solution.

− The solubility of a substance depends on the physical and

chemical properties of both the solute and the solvent.

Factors that Affect Solubility:

1. Temperature:

− Increasing the temperature generally increases the solubility

of a substance.

− Higher temperatures provide more energy to overcome the

intermolecular forces between the solute and solvent,

allowing more solute to dissolve.

2. Particle Size:

− Smaller particle size of the solute increases the surface area,

allowing for faster dissolution.

− Finely powdered or crushed solutes tend to have higher

solubility compared to larger, coarser particles.

Definition of a Saturated Solution:

− A saturated solution is a solution in which the maximum

amount of a solute has been dissolved in the solvent at a

given temperature.

− No more solute can be dissolved in a saturated solution, and

any additional solute will simply sink to the bottom of the

 container.

Definition of an Unsaturated Solution:

− An unsaturated solution is a solution in which the

concentration of the solute is less than the maximum amount

that can be dissolved in the solvent at a given temperature.

− Unsaturated solutions can still dissolve more solute until they

become saturated.

Differences between Saturated and Unsaturated Solutions

What is Saturated Point?

The saturated point is the point at which the solution becomes

saturated, meaning no more solute can be dissolved in the solvent at

that temperature.

✓ Solubility Limit: At the saturated point, the solution has reached

its solubility limit, and any additional solute added will not

dissolve but will instead sink to the bottom of the container.

✓ Concentration: Saturated solutions have the maximum

concentration of solute, while unsaturated solutions have a lower

concentration.
✓ Ability to Dissolve More Solute: Saturated solutions cannot

dissolve any more solute, while unsaturated solutions can still

dissolve additional solute.

✓ Appearance: Saturated solutions may have undissolved solute

particles at the bottom, while unsaturated solutions are clear with

no undissolved solute.

Worked Example:

Instructions: Determine if the given solutions are saturated or

unsaturated.

500 grams of flour is completely This is an unsaturated solution.

dissolved in 1 liter of water. The solution was able to

completely dissolve the 500

grams of flour, indicating that it

has not reached its maximum

solubility.

When another 200 grams of This is a saturated solution. The

flour was added in the solution, fact that the additional 200

the additional flour was not grams of flour did not

dissolved completely. completely dissolve means the

solution has reached its

maximum solubility and is now

saturated.

The solutions cannot hold any This describes a saturated

more solute. solution. When a solution

cannot dissolve any more

 solute, it has reached its

saturated point.

One pack of gelatin powder This is an unsaturated solution.

completely dissolved in 400 The complete dissolution of the

grams water. gelatin powder indicates that the

solution has not reached its

maximum solubility.

The milk powder cannot be This is a saturated solution. The

dissolved anymore in a cup of inability to dissolve any more

water. milk powder means the solution

has reached its saturated point.