CHAPTER 5 1947

VICTIMOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION, Benjamin Mendelsohn coins the term

VICTIMS AND VICTIMIZATION "victimology" in a French journal
1948
Learning Objectives Hans von Hentig publishes his book The
At the end of this chapter, the student will Criminal and His Victim.
be able to: 1949
Discuss victimology as a specialized study Frederic Wertham first used the word
of criminology; "victimology" in a book Show of Violence.
Present the concept of victims and 1957
victimization; and Margery Fry proposes victim compensation
Discuss the various typologies of victims. in the London Times.
1958
An Introduction Marvin Wolfgang studies homicide victims;
uses the term "victim precipitation"
Different scholars have noted that although 1963
classical writers of Criminology have written New Zealand enacts the first Criminal
about 'victims' dating back to the 18th Compensation Act
Century, it was only through the seminal 1965
work, "A New Branch of Bio-Psycho-Social California is the first state in the USA to start
Science, Victimology" (1956), of Benjamin Victim Compensation
Mendelsohn that victimology' as a separate 1966
academic discipline came into being. Thus, Japan enacts Criminal Indemnity Law
Mendelsohn is credited to be the father of 1966
victimology (Doerner and Lab, 2017). USA starts to survey crime victims not
Mendelsohn was genuinely interested on reported to the police
the dynamics that existed between the 1967
victim and the offender. In preparing for a Canada creates a Criminal Compensation
case, Mendelsohn, a lawyer, would ask Injuries Act as does Cuba and Switzerland
victims, witnesses and even bystanders with 1968
knowledge of a case he is working on to Stephan Schafer writes the first victimology
answer a questionnaire. textbook The Victim and His Criminal
1972
Critical Dates in Victimology The first three victim assistance
programmes are created in St. Louis,
1924 Missouri, San Francisco, California and in
Edwin Sutherland includes a chapter on Washington, D. C
victims in his criminology textbook. 1973
1937 The first international symposium on
Benjamin Mendelsohn publishes his writings victimology is held in Jerusalem, Israel.
on the rapist and his victim. 1974
1941 The first police-based victim advocate
Hans von Hentig publishes article on victim project is started in Fort Lauderdale, Florida,
and criminal interactions. USA.
1975 1987
The first "Victim Rights' Week" is organized The US Department of Justice opens the
by the Philadelphia District Attorney, National Victims Resource Centre in
Pennsylvania, USA. Rockville, Maryland.
1976 1988
John Dussich launches the National The first "Indian Nations: Justice for Victims
Organization of Victim Assistance (NOVA) of Crime" conference is held by the Office
in Fresno, California, USA for Victims of Crime in Rapid City, South
1976 Dakota, USA.
Emilio Viano launches the first scholarly
journal devoted to victimology 1990
1976 The European Forum for Victim Services
James Rowland creates the first Victim was founded by all the national
Impact Statement in Fresno, California, organizations in Europe working for victims
USA of crime in consultative status with the
1979 Council of Europe and the UN.
The World Society of Victimology is founded 1999
in Munster, Germany The United Nations and the US Office for
1980 Victims of Crime publish the Guide for
Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) is Policymakers on the Implementation of the
founded by Candi Lightner after one of her United Nations Declaration of Basic
twin daughters was killed by a drunk driver Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime
who was a repeat offender and Abuse of Power and the Handbook on
1981 Justice for Victims: On the Use and
President Ronald Reagan proclaims the first Application of the United Nations
national Victims' Rights Week in April Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for
1982 Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power.
The first Victim Impact Panel established by 2002
MADD to educate drunk drivers about how On 11 April, 66 the Rome Statute was
their victims suffered, started in Rutland, ratified & went into force on 1 July at which
Massachusetts, USA. time the International Criminal Court
1984 became effective and it included the
The Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) creation of a Victim and Witness Unit,
establishes the national Crime Victims Fund 2003
from federal crime fines to pay for state On October 2nd the Tokiwa International
victim compensation and services. Victimology Institute, in Mito Japan opened
1985 its doors to promote victim rights, to conduct
The United Nations unanimously adopts the seminars, courses, publish an international
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for journal, and host annual symposia and
Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. lectures and research about victimology.
2004
The World Society of Victimology at its
annual Executive Committee meeting in
Orlando, Florida adopts a dramatic new
strategic plan to commit itself to the ideals The said UN Declaration underscored some
and promises of the UN Declaration basic principles that can be summarized
2005 into the following: a. access to justice and
Japan puts the UN Basic Principles of fair treatment; b. restitution; c.
Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of compensation; and d. assistance.
Power into their national legislation by
adopting a new fundamental law for crime A. Access to justice and fair treatment
victims. To ensure that the principles would It states that victims should be addressed
be initiated, the Prime Minister established a with respect and compassion to provide
cabinet level committee. The new law them the dignity that should be aff 9orded to
includes services for victims, restitution from them. They should be allowed access to
the offender, information about criminal judicial mechanisms as well as prompt
justice and a right to formally participate in redress. These mechanisms should be
the criminal justice process. written through a national legislation, for the
(Source: Dussich, John, Victimology-Past, harm that they've suffered. Additionally,
Present and Future. 131st International administrative and judicial mechanisms
Senior Seminar Visiting Experts' Papers, should be established and strengthened
Accessed from: https://www.unafei. where needed to enable victims to get
or.jp/publications/pdf/RS_No70/No70_12VE redress through informal or formal
_Dussich.pdf. Accession date October 12, procedures that are actually accessible,
2019.) inexpensive, fair, and expeditious. Victims
must be informed of the rights in seeking
Victims and Victimization redress through such mechanisms. The
There are a number of definitions of what responsiveness of administrative and
constitutes a 'victim', the UN Declaration on judicial processes to the needs of victims
Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of should be facilitated by: (one) Informing
Crime and Abuse of Power, the "victim" are victims of the their role and the scope,
"persons who, individually or collectively, progress and timing of the proceedings and
have suffered harm including physical or of the disposition of their cases, especially
mental injury, emotional suffering, financial where serious crimes are actually involved
or economic loss or substantial impairment and where they've requested such info;
of their fundamental rights, through (two) allowing the views and concerns of
conducts that are criminalized by national victims to be presented and considered at
laws or through other behaviors that are not appropriate stages of the proceedings
criminalized by national laws but violate where the personal interests of theirs are
internationally recognized norms of human actually affected, with no prejudice to the
rights and as such they are internationally accused and consistent with the relevant
criminalized" (The UN Declaration of Basic national criminal justice system; (three)
Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime providing proper assistance to victims
and Abuse of Power. Retrieved from: throughout the legal process; (four) taking
https://www. measures to minimize inconvenience to
unodc.org/pdf/criminal_justice/UNODC_Han victims, protect the privacy of theirs, when
dbook_on_Justice_for_ victims.pdf. necessary, and ensure their safety, as well
Accessed on December 12, 2019). as that of their witnesses and families on
the behalf of theirs, from retaliation and authority the victimizing act or maybe
intimidation; (five) staying away from omission occurred is not in existence, the
unnecessary delay in the disposition of Government or State successor in title must
cases as well as the execution of orders or offer restitution to the victims.
perhaps decrees granting awards to victims.
Informal mechanisms for the resolution of C. Compensation
disputes, including mediation, arbitration When compensation is not completely
and indigenous practices or customary offered from other options or the offender,
justice, should be utilized where appropriate States ought to endeavor to offer monetary
to facilitate redress and conciliation for compensation to: (i) Victims who've suffered
victims. considerable physical injury or for the
serious harm to their mental or physical
B. Restitution health as an outcome of severe crimes; (ii)
Offenders and criminals should be held The family members of victims, particularly
accountable for their behavior, and where dependents of those that have died or may
appropriate, should provide reasonable have become mentally or physically
restitution to their victims, their dependents incapacitated as a consequence of such
or families. Such restitution could include victimization. The establishment, building up
the return of property or compensation for and expansion of a national fund for
the loss that the victims have suffered. This compensation to victims must be
must also include reimbursement of encouraged. Wherever appropriate, some
expenses incurred as an outcome of the other funds might additionally be created,
victimization, the provision of services and which includes in all those instances in
also the restoration of rights. Governments which the State of the victim where he is a
must examine their practices, laws and national is unable to provide the right
regulations to consider restitution as an compensation due to financial inability.
accessible sentencing alternative in criminal
cases, additionally to many other criminal D. Assistance
sanctions. In cases of substantial injury to Victims must get the required information,
the ecosystem, restitution, if purchased, medical, social and psychological
should include, as much as you possibly assistance through governmental, voluntary,
can, restoration of the environment, indigenous and community-based means.
reconstruction of the infrastructure, Victims must be informed of the accessibility
replacement of community services and of community services and health along with
also reimbursement of the expenses of other related assistance and be
relocation, each time some damage leads to conveniently afforded a chance to access
the dislocation of a neighborhood. them. Police, justice, health, other
Anywhere other agents or public officials personnel and social service concerned
acting in a quasi-official or official capacity must certainly get training to sensitize them
have violated national criminal laws, the with the requirements of victims, moreover
victims must get restitution from the State pointers to make sure prompt and proper
whose officials or maybe agents are to aid. In providing assistance and services to
blame for the damage inflicted. In instances victims, attention must be provided to all
where the Government under whose
those with specific needs due to the suffered by a group or groups of victims
dynamics of the damage inflicted. through perpetrators whose conduct is
proscribed by internationally recognized
norms of human rights. Collective victims
Victimization are persons who belong to a certain group
The word "victimization" describes the or collectivity. In other word, they are
outcome of crime based on the interaction targeted because they are a member of a
between the offender & victim. It is almost group. Collective victimization can be found
similar to a grammatical relationship in international crime, particularly in
between subject as well as object. In the genocide, crimes against humanity and war
victimological terminology, the phrase crimes. In all such crimes, group
"victimizer" continues to be conceptualized victimization is linked to the conduct of
to describe this particular part of crime victimizers violating international human
effect. Consequently, it could be stated that rights and humanitarian law. Historical
"victimizer" is a complex term in victimology. examples are the genocides perpetrated
It is referred to as "offender" or "criminal" in against the Jews by the Nazis during the
some other branches of criminal sciences Second World War and the ethnic cleansing
like in criminal law and criminology (Doerner of Rwandan Tutsis and Hwa tribes
and Lab, 2015). perpetrated by Hutus during the Rwandan
Civil War in 1994.
People may suffer victimization individually
or collectively; that is, harm befall on a Typologies of Victims
single person or a group of persons. The following are types of victims of crimes.
Individual victimization results when a single
private person becomes the object of an act a. Child victims refer to those who are
proscribed by a criminal statute. Individual subjected to an act proscribed by domestic
victimization can be viewed in many such and international laws who are below the
crimes including offences against the age of eighteen (18) years. These children
person such as murder, rape, and physical are victimized primarily due to their
assault, crimes against property like theft, childhood or the offender is attracted to
fraud and robbery, and along with other them due to their youth. Examples are child
offences typically criminalized in national abuse and rape, child trafficking, and the
laws. The offender does not victimize the recruitment of child combatants in internal
individual victim because of his group conflicts. In the Philippines, victimizing
affiliation or the crime is not directed at him children is penalized by laws such as
because of a group affiliation (Daigle and Republic Act 9208 or the Anti-Trafficking
Muftic, 2019). in Persons Act and Republic Act 9262 or
the Anti-Violence Against Women and
Collective victimization, on the other hand, Their Children Act.
results when a group of persons suffers
damage caused by perpetrators whose b. Female victims are those who are
conduct is proscribed by worldwide victimized by male offenders owing to their
recognized norms of rights that are human. gender. These crimes are collectively
Collective victimization denotes harm described as 'violence against women' and
best characterized in situations of 'domestic Wildlife Conservation Act and The Animal
violence'. Domestic abuse or violence is Welfare Act of 1995, as amended.
perpetrated by male offenders against
female victims of their own household such
as women battery committed by a husband
or male partners.
c. Minority victims refer to those victims
who are targeted by criminals due to the CHAPTER 6
fact that they are victims of a minority group. THEORIES OF VICTIMOLOGY
Thus, minority victims may be said to be Learning Objectives
victims of discrimination. Examples of which At the end of this chapter, the student will
are victims of hate crimes such as be able to:
homosexuals, Muslims who are attacked by Discuss the basic tenets of major
Islamophobes and American Blacks victimology theories; and
targeted by White Supremacists. Present the concept of victim shaming and
how to address its ill effects.
d. Environmental Victims and Non-
human victims. Only since the 1990s when Nowadays, victimization theories have
Green Criminology was developed did we become typical elements of criminological
see the environment and non-human work, though it was very controversial at the
animals as victims too. Green criminology outset. In spite of its apparent appeal today,
(Lynch et al., 2017) refers to the study of perspectives on victim behavior have just
environmental crimes and harms affecting lately received enough scholarly
human and non-human life, ecosystems respectability to join forces with the
and the biosphere. More specifically, green mainstay of the criminological theories of
criminology explores and analyzes: the offender behavior. Seminal works that have
causes, consequences uences and integrated victim perspectives, like
prevalence of environmental crime and Wolfgang's (1958) research on homicide
harm, the responses to and prevention of and particularly Amir's (1971) work on rape,
environmental crime and harm by the legal encountered political issues since it came
system (civil, out the victim bore some responsibility for
their victimization. This was a concept that
criminal, regulatory) and by smacked of "blaming the victim.".
nongovernmental entities and social In his 2005 book, Larry J. Siegel discusses
movements, as well as the meaning and four major theories of victimology; namely,
mediated representations of environmental a. Victim Precipitation Theory, b.
crime and harm. In the Philippines, a Lifestyle Theory, c. Deviant Place
number of statues seek to protect the Theory, and d. Routine Activities Theory.
environment. To name a few, Presidential
Decree 705 or the Forestry Code, The Victim Precipitation Theory
Philippine Mining Act of 1995, The Clean Air Victim precipitation theory, the first theory of
Act, and The Clean water Act, just to name victimization, contends that victims give rise
a few. Non-human animals are protected to the criminal events that harm them, either
too such as Republic Act 9147 or The through victim facilitation or even through
victim provocation. Victimology, the study of https://www.thelawproject.
victims, originated with victim precipitation Date accessed, January 6, 2020.
theory as well as the typologies put together
by the pioneering victimologists, like those Lifestyle Theory
of Von Hentig, Mendelsohn, Shafer, Lifestyle exposure theory posits that
Wolfgang, and Amir. Amir's typology of persons with certain demographic profiles
forcible rape and its corresponding are more prone to experience criminal
criticisms from nay quarters resulted to a victimization since their lifestyles expose
broader series of victimological theory. risky situations. The probability of
Victim precipitation was a term first used by victimization increases as a function of
Wolfgang to describe situations in which the engaging in lifestyles that increase the
victim was the original aggressor in the amount of time spent in public spaces,
action which led to their harm or perhaps particularly at night, and time spent among
loss. Victim precipitation existed not only in strangers. Lifestyles are important since
the research of Wolfgang but also in spirit in they improve the exposure to would-be
the early typologies of Mendelsohn (1956) offenders with no effective restraints that
like the completely innocent victim (no can stop a crime. Consequently, it's the
precipitation) and the victim who was a little exposure to risk and not the lifestyles per se
guilty compared to the offender where one that create opportunities for victimization.
provokes another to commit a crime. This logic suggests that the well-established
Precipitation also can be seen in the relationship between demographic
typology of von Hentig in the tormentor, who characteristics, like gender, and
precipitates his victimisation by torturing his victimization, is fully mediated by exposure
family, and in Schafer's typology with and lifestyles to risk. To date, empirical
provocative victims and explicitly with scientific studies have found consistent
precipitative victims. The latter style is support for the theory, particularly with
actually an immediate acknowledgement respect to property victimization.
that some victims have characteristics or
perhaps do something that entices an Examples:
offender to commit crimes against them and "Single women who drink frequently and
is a lot more akin to what Siegel calls have a prior history of being sexually
passive precipitation (Petherick, 2017). assaulted are most likely to be assaulted on
[college] campus."
Examples: "People who belong to groups that have an
"In 1971, Menachem Amir suggested extremely risky life-homeless, runaways,
female rape victims often contribute to their drug users-are at high risk for victimization;
attacks by... pursuing a relationship with the the more time they are exposed to street
rapist." life, the greater their risk of becoming crime
"A woman may become the target of victims."
domestic violence when she increases her Source: Accessed from,
job status and her success results in a https://www.thelawproject.
backlash from a jealous spouse or partner." com.au/victimology-four-major-theories.
Source: Accessed from, Date accessed, January 6, 2020.
com.au/victimology-four-major-theories.
Deviant Place Theory leaving the community for a much less
The more often victims visit dangerous deviant, very low crime rate region (Madero-
places, the more likely they'll be exposed to Hernadez, 2019).
violence and crime. Victims don't encourage Lifestyle Exposure Theory of Victimization
crime but are actually victim prone since
they reside in socially disorganized high Routine Activities Theory
crime areas just where they've probably the Finally, the regular activity theory explains
greatest risk of coming into contact with the speed of victimization by way of a set of
criminal offenders, regardless of their own situations which reflect the routines of
behavior or perhaps lifestyle. regular individuals. These are the following:
The deviant place theory notes that greater First, the accessibility of suitable targets;
exposure to dangerous locations helps Second, the lack of capable guardians; and
make a person much more susceptible to three, the presence of inspired offenders.
be the target of any crime (Seigel, 2005). In Based on this particular concept. the
contrast to the victim precipitation theory, presence of one or even more of these
the victims don't affect the crime by elements creates a greater risk of
passively or actively encouraging it, but only victimization. For instance, leaving one's
are victimized as an outcome of being in home unattended as they head off on a
dangerous sections of the city. To negate vacation makes their home a suitable target
the possibility that an individual is going to for burglars. Leaving a house for holiday in
become the target of any crime, the person a metropolitan area generates an even
must stay away from the "bad" areas of higher threat; and also doing so in an urban
town where crime rates are high. For area where there's a greater number of
instance, if a place is known for its gangs, teenage boys, acknowledged felons, and
and high crime rate. The greater number of any other "motivated offenders" generates
private undertakings one has in that place, an even greater risk for victimization. Towns
the greater likelihood that they will become and or suburban areas with high police
the target of a criminal offense there. visibility, other protection systems and
Sociologist William Julius Wilson states that sensors, and neighborhood watch teams,
the economic and social inequality causes reduce the possibility of victimization.
more minorities to become victims of crimes
since they are unable to move out from their
'dangerous' neighborhoods. This is in Current Research Work on Feminist
comparison to their white peers who are Victimology Theories
more economically empowered to get out of In recent years, the victimology literature
areas where crime becomes rampant has been delving
(1990). Furthermore, the deviant place significantly on how gender impacts
theory implies that taking security victimization as a whole and more
precautions in these places might be of very specifically on how each type of
little use since it's the community, rather victimization is affected by gender. For
than the lifestyle choices, affecting example, Belknap (2014) focuses on
victimization (Seigel, 2006). In a nutshell, if female's experiences with different parts of
a community is "deviant," the sole method the criminal justice system, including just
to reduce the risk of yours of victimization is how victimization shapes the female
experience with offending and also justice.
Additional research examines specific kinds The term itself was coined and popularized
of victimization including Carbone-Lopez by the psychologist William Ryan in his
and Lauritsen (2011) and Mummert and book with the same title published in 1971.
Daigle (2014) which look at risk factors for Ryan stated that blaming the victim had its
brutal victimization and Wilcox, et al. (2009) origins as an ideological justification on the
which explores school victimization. Some rampant racism and social injustices
functions like May, et al. (2010) have perpetrated against the black people
examined just how gender influences primarily in the southern United States.
individuals' fear of crime & perceived
victimization risk. One more type of inquiry Secondary victimization, on the other
examines how female's victimization hand, results through the response of the
experiences influence involvement in victim's loved ones, the general public and
behavior that is criminal. Chesney-Lind even by social institutions. This typically
(1997) underscores the impact of brutal happens through victim blaming, when they
victimization in childhood and just how this tend to cast doubt on the victim's story, and
causes offending in adulthood, while Miller minimizing the effect of the attack on the
(1998) and Decker and Miller (2001) victims. Even the manner by which medical
examine just how female involvement in personnel handle the procedure to examine
gangs influences female adolescents' and treat victims may result in secondary
offending, in addition to victimization risk. victimization.
Daly (1992) examines female's pathways to
crime and just how these frequently involve
trauma and violence for girls and women.
Victim Blaming, Shaming and Secondary
Victimization

Victim blaming occurs once the victim of

any crime or any
a wrongful act is held partially or entirely at
fault for the harm or damage that befell
them. The study of victimology seeks to
mitigate the prejudice against victims, and
also the notion that victims are by any
means to blame for the activities of
offenders. There is current and historical
prejudice against the victims of domestic
violence and sex crimes, like the victims of
robbery if victims knew the perpetrators
before the Occurrence of the crime.
Expressions like, 'she was asking for it', 'she
deserved it', 'she walked right into it' ae
typical expressions in blaming Victims of
sexual abuse.