Metamorphic Rocks

and the Rock Cycle

 What are Rocks?
◼ Most rocks are an aggregate of one or more minerals,
and a few rocks are composed of non-mineral matter.

◼ There are three major rock types:

◼ 1. Igneous

◼ 2. Metamorphic

◼ 3. Sedimentary
 Major Rock Types
◼ Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten
magma or lava near, at, or below the Earth’s surface.

◼ Sedimentary rocks are formed by the lithification of

inorganic and organic sediments deposited at or near
the Earth’s surface.

◼ Metamorphic rocks are formed when preexisting

rocks are transformed into new rocks by heat and
pressure below the Earth’s surface.
The Rock Cycle
 Metamorphic Rocks
◼ Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing parent rocks are
transformed (metamorphosed) by heat and pressure deep below
the surface of the earth or along the boundary of tectonic plates.

◼ The three primary causes of metamorphism include one or more

of the following conditions: heat, pressure, and/or chemically
active fluids.

◼ During metamorphism, rocks may fold, fracture, or even partially

melt to a viscous state and flow before reforming into a new rock.

◼ Metamorphic rocks change in appearance, mineralogy, and

sometimes even chemical composition from their parent rock
source.
 Metamorphism
◼ Metamorphism can occur along a range of heat and pressure
intensities from low- to high-grade metamorphism.

◼ Low-grade metamorphism involves lower temperature and

compressional forces that result in less overall change to the parent
rock. In many cases, after low-grade metamorphic changes the
parent rock may still be easily distinguishable.

◼ High-grade metamorphism results in a total transformation of the

parent rock into a new rock whereby its original parent-rock source
is difficult to identify.
 Metamorphic Conditions
◼ 1. Contact or Thermal Metamorphism: occurs when parent rock is
intruded by magma (usually an igneous intrusion). Metamorphic
changes under these conditions are primarily the result of temperature
changes associated with the intruding magma. Additionally, when hot
ion-rich water circulates through fractures in a rock, it can also cause
chemical changes to the parent rock. These heat-driven, chemical
reactions occur with igneous activity and the presence of water.

◼ 2. Dynamic Metamorphism: occurs when rocks are subjected to

extreme pressure very rapidly. Two situations are noted, (a.) fault zones
and (b.) impact craters. (a.) In the upper crust, faults are planar zones of
crushed rock. The heat generated by friction during faulting can melt
and metamorphose portions of the rock. (b.) Impact craters formed by
extra-terrestrial objects (meteorites) colliding with the earth are
commonly identified by exotic high-pressure minerals formed during
the meteorite crash. Stishovite and coesite, both are high-pressure forms
of quartz resulting from meteor impacts.

◼ 3. Regional Metamorphism: occurs when rocks are subjected to both

heat and pressure on a regional scale. It is caused by burial deep in the
crust and is associated with large scale deformation and mountain
building. It is the most widespread form of metamorphism.
 Causes of Metamorphism: Heat
◼ Heat provides energy for chemical reactions to proceed resulting in
new minerals to form from original minerals in the source rock.

◼ Heat provides the energy that enables individual ions in the rock to
mobilize and migrate between other ions recrystallizing and
forming into new minerals.

◼ Heat involved in metamorphism comes from two main sources:

◼ 1. Heat transferred during contact metamorphism from magma or

igneous intrusions.

◼ 2. Progressive temperature increase associated with geothermal gradient

as rocks are transported to greater depths below the Earth’s surface.
 Causes of Metamorphism: Pressure
◼ Pressure equals force per unit area: (Pressure = F/A).

◼ Pressure increases with depth as the weight and thickness of the

overlying rocks increases.

◼ Pressure during metamorphism is manifested by two different

forces: body force (confining pressure) and surface force
(differential stress).

◼ Body force —forces are applied equally in all directions (gravity and
weight), as a result individual grains are compressed closer and closer
together. Extreme confining pressures that occur at great depths may
even cause ions in the minerals to recrystallize and form new minerals.

◼ Surface force —operates across a surface and occurs when rocks are
compressed or extended along a single plane (push-pull forces). As a
result, the rocks are shortened or extended in the direction the pressure
is applied. Near the Earth’s surface, the cooler temperatures make rocks
brittle and more susceptible to fracturing than folding. Deep below the
Earth’s surface, higher temperature conditions, make the rocks ductile
and they flatten and elongate as oppose to breaking along a fracture, the
resulting rocks then exhibit intricate folding patterns.
 Causes of Metamorphism:
Chemically Active Fluids
◼ Chemically active fluids that are present between mineral grains
during metamorphism act to facilitate ion movement and the re-
crystallization of existing and new minerals.

◼ Higher temperatures increase the reactive capability of ion-rich

fluids. When these fluids come in contact with mineral grains, the
grains readily dissolve because of differential chemical potentials,
and ions migrate to areas of lower potential eventually
recrystallizing.

◼ Chemically active fluids have the ability to move between different

rock layers and transport ions from one rock to another before they
recrystallize.
 The Role of Parent Rocks in
Metamorphism
◼ Parent rocks provide the minerals and ion sources that are
transformed into new minerals and rocks.

◼ In most cases the new metamorphic rock has the same chemical
composition as the parent rock that they formed from.

Examples of parent rocks and their metamorphic products:

Sandstone Quartzite
Sedimentary Metamorphic

Granite Gneiss
Igneous Metamorphic

Limestone Marble
Sedimentary Metamorphic
Classifying Metamorphic Rocks by
Different Types of Textures
◼ Texture is used to describe the size, shape, and arrangement of
grains within a rock.

◼ The different textures of mineral grains within metamorphic rocks

are used to infer information about the conditions which formed
them.

◼ Many of the mineral grains in metamorphic rocks display

preferential orientations where the alignment of the minerals is
parallel or subparallel to one another.

◼ Rocks that exhibit parallel or sub-parallel orientation are

categorized as foliated, while those that do not exhibit orientations
are categorized as nonfoliated.
 Foliated Rock Textures
◼ Foliation is broadly defined as any planar arrangement of mineral
grains or structural features in a rock. Foliation can occur in both
igneous and metamorphic rocks (this section will only focus on
foliation in metamorphic rocks).

◼ Foliation in metamorphic rocks occurs when the minerals in the

rock align and recrystallize along planes of parallel orientation as a
result of heat and compressional forces.

◼ Minerals recrystallize into platy, elongated, or flattened grains,

according to their original crystal habits. They segregate into thin
layers that appear as thinly banded slivers of minerals interlayered
together.

◼ Different textures used to describe foliation include: slaty cleavage,

schistosity, and gneissic texture.
 Foliated Textures: Slaty Cleavage
◼ Slaty cleavage is used to describe rocks that split into thin, planar slabs
when hit with a hammer.
◼ Rocks with slaty cleavage often contain alternating bands of different
minerals where one type of mineral (usually mica formed from
recrystallized clay) forms highly aligned platy grains of foliated minerals.
The rock will split into thin sections along these bands.
◼ Slaty cleavage commonly occurs under low-grade metamorphic conditions.

The weathered exterior of this rock and broken

fragments show an example of slaty cleavage
from the Carolina Slate belt in South Carolina’s
Piedmont.

Photo: SCGS
 Foliated Textures: Schistosity
◼ Schistosity describes rocks with foliated mineral grains that are large
enough to see without magnification.
◼ Schistocity occurs under medium-grade metamorphic conditions, and the
crystals have a greater opportunity to grow during recrystallization.
◼ Unlike slaty cleavage, which tends to preferentially affect some minerals
more than others, schistosity tends to affect all the different mineral
components.
◼ Rocks with schistosity are generally referred to as schist.

The foliated mineral grains of this schist

provide a good example of schistosity. Notice
how the rock weathers in flaky sections. Rocks
with schistosity can easily crumble or broken
into smaller pieces with bare hands.

Photo: SCGS
 Foliated Textures: Gneissic
◼ Gneissic textures occur when the silicate minerals in the rock separate and
recrystallize into alternating bands of light (quartz and feldspar) and dark
(biotite, amphibole, or hornblende) grains of silicate minerals.
◼ The mineral alignment in gneissic rocks is less platy and more granular or
elongated than slaty cleavage or schistosity.

The alternating quartz and biotite bands in

this rock characterize gneissic texture. This
photo also illustrates an example of folding
that results from the intense heat and
pressure of metamorphic conditions.

Photo: SCGS
 Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
◼ Slate
◼ Phyllite
◼ Schist
◼ Gneiss

Photo: SCGS

South Carolina’s Piedmont is composed

primarily of foliated metamorphic rocks. In
many locations different metamorphic rock
types occur in close proximity. Many of the
metamorphic rocks in this region are folded and
faulted, making for very exciting geology.

Photo: SCGS
 Foliated Rocks: Slate
◼ Slate is a fine-grained rock composed of mica flakes and quartz
grains that enable the rock to break into thin slabs of rock, along
planes of slaty cleavage.
◼ Slate forms in low-grade metamorphic environments from a parent
rock of either shale, mudstone, or siltstone.
◼ Slate is commonly thought of as black, but it can also be red when it
contains iron oxide minerals, or green when it contains chlorite.
Weathered slate may even appear light brown in the example below.

This example of slate is part of the Carolina

Slate belt which traverses through the
Piedmont of South Carolina. This image
also provides a good example of the slaty
cleavage that has also been folded.

Photo: SCGS
 Foliated Rocks: Schist
◼ Schist exhibits schistosity, which is formed by the alignment of
platy medium- to coarse-grained minerals formed under moderate-
to high-grade metamorphic conditions.
◼ Schists are primarily composed of silicate minerals such as mica
(muscovite and biotite), quartz, and feldspar .
◼ Shale, siltstone, and some sandstones can provide the parent rock
for schist.
◼ Schist may contain accessory minerals such as garnet, tourmaline,
and pyrite.

This schist is from the Piedmont region in

South Carolina. Notice how the different
layers are weathering at slightly different
rates, the layers of darker, mica rich schist are
weathering more quickly than the tan,
feldspar and quartz-rich layers.

Photo: SCGS
 Foliated Rocks: Phyllite
◼ Phyllite is a low- to moderate-grade metamorphic rock that contains
aligned platy mica minerals and has slaty cleavage.
◼ The individual crystals are fine grained and generally consist of
muscovite, white mica, and chlorite (green rocks).
◼ Phyllite has a satiny appearance and waxy texture.
◼ Phyllite is a metamorphic form of shale, mudstone, and siltstone.

These samples of phyllite all came from

the same quarry in South Carolina. The
slaty cleavage of the phyllite is what
makes it a foliated rock. As phyllite
weathers it parts along the cleavage
planes.
 Foliated Rocks: Gneiss
◼ Gneiss is a medium- to coarse-grained rock formed under high
grade-metamorphic conditions.
◼ Gneiss is primarily composed of quartz, potassium feldspar, and
plagioclase feldspar with lesser amounts of biotite, muscovite, and
amphibole.
◼ Granites and sometimes rhyolite provide the parent rock for gneiss.

Gneisses are generally light colored because

they contain a large amount of quartz and
feldspar. The alternating light and dark bands
in this gneiss illustrate the segregation of
different minerals during crystallization. This
example also shows folds in the rock. This
gneiss most likely formed from a
metamorphosed igneous intrusion. South
Carolina’s Piedmont and Blue Ridge contain
gneissic bedrock.

Photo: SCGS
 Nonfoliated Rock Textures
◼ Nonfoliated rock textures form under two basic conditions,
metamorphism of monomineralic rocks and metamorphism in the
absence of directed stress.

◼ Nonfoliated textures form during recrystallization of

monomineralic rocks where the distribution of mineral growth is
approximately equal, i.e. minerals grow at same rate and to same
size.

◼ In the absence of directed stress, minerals with high aspect ratio

are randomly oriented and show no preferential alignment.

◼ Marble is an example of a metamorphic rock with a nonfoliated

texture.
 Nonfoliated Rocks: Marble
◼ Marble is a nonfoliated, coarse-grained metamorphic rock formed
from the parent rock limestone or dolostone.
◼ Because it is formed from limestone or dolostone it is predominantly
composed of the mineral calcite, which metamorphoses into various
carbonate and other minerals. As calcite recrystallizes, all the grains
are active at the same time and they grow to the same size and shape,
which leads to its nonfoliated texture.
◼ Different color schemes in marble are the result of impurities or the
presence of weathered materials deposited in or near the limestone.

Marble is used as a building material and is

popular for sculpture. The word ‘marble’
derives from a Greek word that translates as
“shining stone” because it can be polished.
Limestone that metamorphoses into marble
may contain a lot of fossils; however, the heat
and pressure of metamorphism destroys
preexisting features primarily through
recrystallization.

Copyright © Dr. Richard Busch

 Quartzite
◼ Quartzite is a metamorphic rock formed under moderate to high-
grade metamorphism that exhibits both foliated and nonfoliated
structure.
◼ The parent rock to quartzite is sandstone.
◼ Quartzite forms from the recrystallization of quartz grains in the
sandstone and often the resulting metamorphic rock will preserve
vestiges of the original bedding patterns .
◼ Quartz is predominantly white in color, but can also contain
pinkish or grayish shades depending on the presence of iron
oxides.
This example of quartzite show a couple of
interesting features. First, notice how the
different bedding planes have been
preserved during the metamorphism.
Secondly, there is a fault running though the
quartzite that occurred after the formation of
the rock. This particular example is of a
foliated quartzite (due primarily to the
preservation of the bedding planes) however
some quartzite rocks are classified as
nonfoliated.
 Metamorphic Rocks in the Landscape
Grandfather Mountain, in North Carolina, is part of
the Blue Ridge Province of the Appalachian
Mountains in the Eastern United States. The rocks in
this region began undergoing metamorphism nearly a
billion years ago. Million of years later rocks from
Africa collided with North America, before rifting
apart to eventually form the Atlantic Ocean. Today,
weathering and erosion of the surrounding landscape
exposes the metamorphosed rocks that make up
Grandfather Mountain.

Copyright Bruce Molnia @ Terra Photographics

The Snake Range Mountain in Great Basin National

Park, Nevada, are metamorphosed sandstone rocks.
These vertically oriented bedding planes were once
horizontal layers of sediment deposits at the bottom
of a sea. Nearly 200 million years ago thrusting,
tilting, faulting, and uplifting metamorphosed the
sandstone into quartzite. Another major
metamorphic event began about 30 million years
ago when the earth’s crust began stretching in an
east to west direction. As a result the rocks faulted
into large blocks that tilted, producing the rock
orientation we see today.
[Link]
 Resources and References
Christopherson, R. W. ,2002, Geosystems (4th ed.): Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Christopherson, R. W., 2004, Elemental Geosystems (4th ed.): Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Robertson, S., 1999, BGS Rock Classification Scheme, Volume 2, classification of metamorphic rocks: British
Geological Survey Research Report (2nd Edition) , RR 99-03.

Keller, E. A., 2000, Environmental Geology (8th ed.): Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Lutgens, F. K., and Tarbuck. E. J., 2003, Essentials of Geology (8th ed.): Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.