1

ASSIGNMENT NO.1
TOPIC: NUCLEAR REACTORS
SUBMITTED BY:-
 Laraib Tariq (2I25107075)
 Ifrah Batool (2125107056)
 Fareeha Manzoor (2125107038)
 Amina Mustafa (2125107009)
 Zunaira Butt (2125107178)
 Fatima Shafique (2125107042)
 Fatima Iftikhar (2125107040)
Class: BS-III
Semester: 06
Section: B
Subject: Physical Chemistry
Session: 2021-2025
Submitted to: Dr. Bushra Naseem

LAHORE COLLEGE FOR WOMEN UNIVERSITY

 2

Table of Contents
NUCLEAR REACTORS.................................................................................................................4
History and Introduction of nuclear reactors:..............................................................................4
Principle:......................................................................................................................................5
COMPONENT OF NUCLEAR REACTOR:..................................................................................6
Fuel:.............................................................................................................................................6
Moderator:...................................................................................................................................6
Control rods or blades:.................................................................................................................7
Coolant:........................................................................................................................................7
Pressure vessel or pressure tubes:................................................................................................8
Steam generator:..........................................................................................................................8
Containment:................................................................................................................................9
TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTOR................................................................................................9
Prototype reactor:.........................................................................................................................9
COMMERCIAL REACTORS.......................................................................................................11
Boiling water reactor (BWR):....................................................................................................11
Disadvantage:.............................................................................................................................11
Pressurized water reactor (PWR):..............................................................................................11
PRESSURIZED HEAVY WATER REACTOR.............................................................................12
Principle.....................................................................................................................................12
Parts:..........................................................................................................................................13
Steam Generator:.......................................................................................................................13
Pressure Tubes:..........................................................................................................................13
Fuel Rods:..................................................................................................................................13
Moderator:.................................................................................................................................13
Advantage:.................................................................................................................................14
GAS COOLED REACTOR (GCR)...............................................................................................14
Working:....................................................................................................................................14
Advantage..................................................................................................................................15
LIQUID GRAPHITE REACTOR.................................................................................................16
 3

Parts of reactor:..........................................................................................................................16
Graphite block:..........................................................................................................................16
Pressure tubes:...........................................................................................................................16
Fuel elements:............................................................................................................................17
External drum or coolant...........................................................................................................17
LIQUID METAL FAST BREEDER REACTOR (LMFBR).........................................................18
Introduction:..............................................................................................................................18
Parts of reactor:..........................................................................................................................18
Core:..........................................................................................................................................18
Fuel:...........................................................................................................................................19
Coolant:......................................................................................................................................19
Primary and secondary circuit:..................................................................................................19
Conversion of uranium-238 to plutonium-239:.........................................................................19
Chain reaction:...........................................................................................................................20
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................21
 4

NUCLEAR REACTORS
“A nuclear reactor is a device designed tomaintain a self-sustainingchain reaction producing a
controlled release of energy.”

History and Introduction of nuclear reactors:

The history of nuclear reactors dates back to the mid-20th century. The first successful nuclear
reactor, called Chicago Pile-1, was built by Enrico Fermi in 1942. It was a crucial step in the
development of nuclear energy. Since then, various reactor designs have been developed for
different purposes, including power generation, research, and propulsion. Over the years,
advancements have been made in reactor safety, efficiency, and waste management. Today,
nuclear power provides a significant portion of the world’s electricity, with reactors of different
types operating globally.

Fig 1: Chicago pile -1 nuclear reactor model

Nuclear reactors are complex systems designed to harness the energy released from nuclear
fission reactions. These reactions occur when the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller
fragments, releasing a large amount of energy in the process. This energy is utilized to produce
steam, which drives turbines connected to generators, ultimately generating electricity.
Reactor design involves careful consideration of various factors such as safety, efficiency, and
waste management. Different types of reactors, including pressurized water reactors (PWRs),
 5

boiling water reactors (BWRs), and advanced reactor designs, offer different advantages and
challenges. Reactor operation requires precise control of nuclear reactions, coolant flow, and
other parameters to ensure safe and efficient energy production. Advance nuclear reactor is
Generation -IV nuclear reactor.

Fig 2: Generation -IV nuclear reactor

Principle:
Nuclear reactors operate on the principle of nuclear fission, the process in which a heavy atomic
nucleus splits into two smaller fragments. The nuclear fragments are in very excited states and
emit neutrons, other subatomic particles, and photons. The emitted neutrons may then cause new
fissions, which in turn yield more neutrons, and so forth. Such a continuous self-sustaining series
of fissions constitutes a fission chain reaction. A large amount of energy is released in this
process, and this energy is the basis of nuclear power systems.
 6

Fig 3: Nuclear fission process

COMPONENT OF NUCLEAR REACTOR:

There are several components common to most types of reactor:

Fuel:
Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in tubes to form
fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor [Link] a 1000 MWe class
PWR there might be 51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets.
● In a new reactor with new fuel a neutron source is needed to get the reaction going.
Usually this is beryllium mixed with polonium, radium or other alpha-emitters. Alpha
particles from the decay cause a release of neutrons from the beryllium as it turns to
carbon-12. Restarting a reactor with some used fuel may not require this, as there may be
enough neutrons to achieve criticality when control rods are removed.

Fig 4: Fuel rod

 7

Moderator:
Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they cause more
fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.

Fig 5: Moderator

Control rods or blades:

These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are
inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it. In some PWR
reactors, special control rods are used to enable the core to sustain a low level of power
efficiently. (Secondary control systems involve other neutron absorbers, usually boron in the
coolant – its concentration can be adjusted over time as the fuel burns up.) PWR control rods are
inserted from the top, BWR cruciform blades from the bottom of the core.
● In fission, most of the neutrons are released promptly, but some are delayed. These are
crucial in enabling a chain reacting system (or reactor) to be controllable and to be able to
be held precisely critical.

Fig 6: Control rods

 8

Coolant:
A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from [Link] light water reactors the
water moderator functions also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is a secondary coolant
circuit where the water becomes steam. A PWR has two to four primary coolant loops with
pumps, driven either by steam or electricity – China’s Hualong One design has three, each driven
by a 6.6 MW electric motor, with each pump set weighing 110 tonnes.

Fig 7: Coolant

Pressure vessel or pressure tubes:

Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and moderator/coolant, but it may be a
series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant through the surrounding moderator.

Fig 8: Pressure vessel

Steam generator:
Part of the cooling system of pressurized water reactors (PWR & PHWR) where the high-
pressure primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam for the turbine, in
a secondary circuit. Essentially a heat exchanger like a motor car radiator. Reactors have up to
 9

six 'loops', each with a steam generator. Since 1980 over 110 PWR reactors have had their steam
generators replaced after 20-30 years service, over half of these in the USA.
● These are large heat exchangers for transferring heat from one fluid to another – here
from high-pressure primary circuit in PWR to secondary circuit where water turns to
steam. Each structure weighs up to 800 tonnes and contains from 300 to 16,000 tubes
about 2 cm diameter for the primary coolant, which is radioactive due to nitrogen-16 (N-
16, formed by neutron bombardment of oxygen, with half-life of 7 seconds). The
secondary water must flow through the support structures for the tubes. The whole thing
needs to be designed so that the tubes don't vibrate and fret, operated so that deposits do
not build up to impede the flow, and maintained chemically to avoid corrosion. Tubes
which fail and leak are plugged, and surplus capacity is designed to allow for this. Leaks
can be detected by monitoring N-16 levels in the steam as it leaves the steam generator.

Fig 9: Steam generator

Containment:
The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators which is designed to protect it
from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of radiation in case of any
serious malfunction inside. It is typically a metre-thick concrete and steel structure.
Newer Russian and some other reactors install core melt localization devices or 'core catchers'
under the pressure vessel to catch any melted core material in the event of a major accident.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

There are different types of Nuclear reactors listed below:
 Prototype reactors
 Commercial type reactors
 10

Prototype reactor:
A prototype reactor is a type of nuclear reactor that is designed and constructed to serve as a
tested or demonstration model for new reactor technologies, designs, or concepts.

Characteristics of Prototype Reactors:

Research and Development: Prototype reactors are primarily used for research and
development purposes. They provide a platform for scientists and engineers to experiment with
novel reactor designs, advanced fuel cycles, and safety features.
Innovative Technologies: Prototype reactors often incorporate innovative technologies or
concepts that may not have been previously tested at full scale. These innovations could include
new coolant systems, fuel types, or reactor configurations aimed at improving efficiency, safety,
or sustainability.

Scaled-down Designs: Due to their experimental nature, prototype reactors are typically smaller
in size and power output compared to commercial reactors. This smaller scale allows for more
controlled experimentation and reduces the potential risks associated with testing new
technologies.

Testing and Validation: Prototype reactors are used to validate theoretical models and
simulations through practical experimentation. This validation process helps to refine design
parameters, optimize performance, and identify any unforeseen challenges or limitations.

Data Collection: Operating a prototype reactor generates valuable operational data that can
inform future reactor designs and regulatory standards. This data includes measurements of
reactor performance, fuel behavior, neutron flux, and safety parameters.

Education and Training: Prototype reactors also serve as educational tools, providing hands-on
experience for students, researchers, and nuclear professionals. These facilities offer training
opportunities in reactor operation, maintenance, and safety procedure.
 11

Fig 10: Prototype

Reactor

COMMERCIAL REACTORS
The main types of commercial reactors are explained below.

Boiling water reactor (BWR):

 The boiling water reactor consists of a pressure vessel containing the fuel rods in vertical
elements, with each element surrounded by a channel.
 The channels are flooded with light water which serves as the moderator and coolant.
Pumps circulate water upwards through the channels, and steam is generated within the
channels. The exit steam quality is about 13%, and the steam is separated from the water
in cyclone separators above the reactor core. This saturated steam is sent directly to the
steam turbines.

Fig 11: Diagrammatic cross section of typical BWR

Disadvantage:
This simple direct cycle has the disadvantage that steam from the reactor is passed through the
turbine and the condensate is returned through the feed water heaters, making the whole steam
circuit slightly radioactive during operation.
 12

Pressurized water reactor (PWR):

 The pressurized water reactor overcomes the problem of a slightly radioactive steam
circuit by having an intermediate heat exchanger to separate the reactor coolant circuit
from the turbine steam circuit.
 Steam is generated in this steam generator and is sent to the turbine as saturated steam
under conditions similar to those in the boiling water reactor.
 The reactor coolant circuit is maintained at high pressure to prevent any boiling in the
reactor and operates at a slightly higher temperature than the BWR to promote heat
transfer to the secondary steam circuit.
 Because no boiling occurs in the reactor core, it is more compact and does not require
channels.
 The fuel rods of the individual elements form a continuous vertical matrix in the core.
 This is flooded with an upward flow of circulating light water which serves as coolant
and moderator.
A simplified diagram of a pressurized water reactor is given in Figure.

Fig 12: Diagrammatic cross section of PWR.

PRESSURIZED HEAVY WATER REACTOR

A Pressurized Heavy-Water Reactor (PHWR) is a nuclear reactor that uses heavy water
(deuterium oxide D2O) as its coolant and neutron moderator.
 13

Principle
A pressurized coolant is pumped through a reactor core, being heated by the nuclear fuel
assemblies in the core.

Fig 13: Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor

Parts:
The parts of PHWR is as follows;

Steam Generator:
The pressurized heavy water reactor is similar to the pressurized water reactor in that it has a a
primary coolant and a circuit and secondary steam circuit with a steam generator producing
saturated steam.

Pressure Tubes:
The reactor, however, is different in that it has individual pressure tubes passing horizontally
through the reactor core.

Fuel Rods:
Fuel rods in the form of bundles are contained within these pressure tubes. The heavy water
coolant flows through these tubes and is then circulated through the steam generator.

Moderator:
The pressure tubes are surrounded on the outside by heavy water at low pressure and low
temperature, which serves as the moderator.
This is contained in a large vessel or calandria at ambient pressure.
 14

Fig 14: Schematic Diagram of PHWR

Advantage:
 The advantage of this system is that it does not require a very heavy pressure vessel as in
the BWR and PWR.
 The Canadian version is known as the CANDU.
 Other variations such as the steam generating heavy water reactor (SGHWR) had light
water coolant and vertical channels and generated steam in the core.

GAS COOLED REACTOR (GCR)

Gas-cooled reactor uses gas for inner cycle to bring thermal energy from the fuel elements and
transfer it within the heat exchanger to evaporate water.

Working:
By changing the coolant from carbon dioxide to helium, even higher temperatures could be
achieved, hence the designation high temperature reactor.
This is installed in the form of blocks with holes to form channels into which the fuel elements
are placed and through which the gas coolant flows.
This enables superheated steam to be generated and a high efficiency steam circuit similar to that
of a fossil fuel fired plant to be used. Due to the high temperatures and large core volume
required with a gas coolant, graphite is more suitable than water as a moderator.
 15

Fig 15: Gas Cooled Reactor

Advantage
 This type gave the ultimate advantage of large gas cooled reactors, which have a cycle
efficiency as high as any fossil fuel fired plant.
 The early reactors of this type were known as Magnox from the type of fuel used, and
later ones were called advanced gas cooled reactors (AGRs), which run at higher
temperatures with a different type of fuels.

Fig 16: Schematic Diagram of GCR

 16

LIQUID GRAPHITE REACTOR

Introduction:
A graphite-moderated reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses carbon as a
neutron moderator, which allows natural uranium to be used as nuclear fuel.

Parts of reactor:
 Graphite block
 Pressure tubes
 Fuel elements
 External drum

Graphite block:
The liquid graphite reactor has a graphite block core similar to that of a gas
cooled reactor.

Fig 17: Graphite block

Pressure tubes:
Pressure tubes similar to those of the pressurized heavy water reactor
pass through vertical

holes in the graphite, which serves as the moderator.

 17

Fig 18: Pressure tubes

Fuel elements:
The fuel used in the LGR is high purity uranium dioxide UO2. Fuel elements
made up of clusters of rods are located within these vertical tubes, and light
water coolant flows upwards over the fuel and within the tubes. Boiling
occurs in the fuel as in the boiling water reactor.

Fig 19: Fuel elements

External drum or coolant

Light water passes through the reactor core and absorbs heat. A feature
of this reactor (and other BWRs) is that most heat is absorbed through the
change in phase from liquid to gas. This allows for the elimination of a
secondary steam generating circuit and associated steam generators but still
requires some provision for the separation of the steam.
 18

Fig 20: External drum, coolant

LIQUID METAL FAST BREEDER REACTOR (LMFBR)

Introduction:
The liquid metal fast breeder reactor is different from the others in many
ways.

Fig 21: LMFBR

Parts of reactor:
 Core
 Fuel
 Coolant
 Primary circuit
 Secondary circuit

Core:
All reactors have a core, a central region that contains the fuel, fuel
cladding, coolant, and (where separate from the latter) moderator. The
fission energy in a nuclear reactor is produced in the core.
 19

Fig 22: Core

Fuel:
The most widely used variety for commercial power generation in the
world, employs a fuel consisting of pellets of sintered uranium
dioxide loaded into cladding tubes of zirconium alloy or some other
advanced cladding material.

Coolant:
The coolant is a liquid metal, usually sodium, which flows directly over the
fuel rods of the vertical fuel elements in an upward direction.

Fig 23: Coolant

Primary and secondary circuit:

The heat carried in primary circuit is transferred to a secondary sodium
circuit in a heat exchanger. This secondary circuit then transfers the heat to
the steam circuit in a steam generator.
 20

Conversion of uranium-238 to plutonium-239:

In the early 21st century, all large power plants using fast breeder reactors
employed liquid-metal fast breeder reactors, which convert uranium-238
into the fissionable isotope plutonium-239 by means of artificial radioactive
decay.

Fig 24: Conversion reaction

The plutonium-239 is then bombarded with high-speed neutrons. When

a plutonium nucleus absorbs one such free neutron, it splits into two fission
fragments. This releases heat as well as neutrons, which in turn split other
plutonium nuclei, freeing still more neutrons.

Chain reaction:
As this process is repeated again and again, it becomes a self-
sustaining chain reaction yielding a steady source of energy, chiefly in the
form of heat, which is transported from the reactor core by a liquid sodium
coolant to a system of heat exchangers. This system utilizes the heat to
produce steam for a turbine that drives an electric generator.

Fig 25: Chain reactions

 21

REFERENCES

[Foster1983] A. R. Foster and R. L. Wright, Basic Nuclear Engineering, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ. USA, 1983.
[Glasstone1994] S. Glasstone and A. Sesonske, Nuclear Reactor Engineering: Volume 2,
Reactor Systems Engineering, 4 th ed., Chapman & Hall, New York, NY, USA, 1994.
[Cameron1982] I. R. Cameron, Nuclear Fission Reactors, Plenum Press, New York, 1982.