Writing Effective Arguments (Week 13-15)

Week 13: Understanding Critical Writing and Building Arguments

Introduction

In the realm of academic and professional communication, the ability to engage in

critical writing and construct compelling arguments is a vital skill. Critical writing is not
merely about presenting information—it involves analysing, evaluating, and
constructing reasoned arguments that reflect depth of thought. In this module, we will
explore the foundational concepts of critical writing and examine how to build strong
arguments using Aristotle's rhetorical appeals: ethos, pathos, and logos.

Understanding Critical Writing

Critical writing is an advanced form of thinking expressed in written form. Unlike

descriptive writing, which simply states facts or reports information, critical writing
evaluates and interprets information, synthesizing multiple viewpoints to form an
independent judgment. According to Bailey (2018), critical writing requires students to
"weigh evidence, compare interpretations, question assumptions, and examine
relationships between ideas." It is not enough to say what others have said; effective
critical writing explains why it matters and whether it holds up to scrutiny.

Key elements of critical writing include:

• Analysis: Breaking down complex ideas into smaller parts.

• Evaluation: Judging the value or credibility of sources and arguments.
• Argumentation: Taking a position and supporting it with logical reasoning and
evidence.

Critical writing also demands objectivity. As Cottrell (2017) notes, writers must avoid
being biased or overly emotional. They should base their conclusions on evidence and
clear reasoning rather than personal opinions or anecdotal experiences.

For instance, consider the topic of climate change. A descriptive writer might list the
effects of climate change. A critical writer, however, might compare scientific studies,
evaluate government responses, question economic implications, and propose
informed solutions.
What Makes an Argument?

An argument in academic writing is a logical structure of ideas that supports a

particular position or claim. According to Graff and Birkenstein (2021), arguments are
built through a dialogue between what others say and what you say in response. This
framework helps writers enter academic conversations by presenting their own
perspectives while acknowledging existing ones.

Good arguments typically include:

• A clear thesis (your position or main claim)

• Reasons to support the thesis
• Evidence (facts, examples, data, citations)
• Counterarguments and refutations
• Logical flow and coherence

To build effective arguments, Aristotle’s rhetorical triangle—ethos, pathos, and logos—

serves as a powerful guide. These appeals help writers persuade their audience in
balanced and impactful ways.

The Rhetorical Appeals: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Aristotle, in On Rhetoric, proposed three modes of persuasion—ethos, pathos, and

logos—that are still widely used in academic and professional discourse today.

1. Ethos (Credibility or Ethics)

Ethos refers to the writer’s or speaker’s credibility. When a writer demonstrates

knowledge, fairness, and ethical reasoning, the audience is more likely to trust them.
Ethos can be built through:

• Establishing authority in the subject

• Citing reliable sources
• Maintaining a balanced and respectful tone

For example, in a persuasive essay about mental health awareness, citing studies from
the World Health Organization and using respectful language to describe mental illness
builds ethos.
2. Pathos (Emotion)

Pathos appeals to the audience’s emotions. This strategy makes the argument more
engaging and memorable. Writers use pathos to connect with readers through stories,
vivid imagery, or powerful language. However, overusing emotional appeals without
evidence can weaken an argument.

For instance, a writer arguing against child labour might describe the plight of a specific
child working in a hazardous factory, thereby invoking sympathy and moral urgency.

3. Logos (Logic or Reasoning)

Logos is the appeal to logic. It involves using facts, data, statistics, and well-reasoned
arguments to convince the reader. A strong logos-based argument is clear, structured,
and supported by credible evidence.

For example, in an essay promoting renewable energy, a writer might include data
about declining costs of solar panels and statistics on carbon emissions reduction.

Combining all three appeals strategically enhances the effectiveness of an argument.

As the Purdue OWL (n.d.) explains, writers must understand their audience and choose
rhetorical tools accordingly.

Applying the Appeals: A Sample Topic

Topic: Should College Students Be Required to Take Critical Thinking Courses?

Ethos: “As a professor of English with over ten years of experience teaching first-year
students, I’ve observed how structured critical thinking courses improve academic
writing and decision-making skills.”

Pathos: “Imagine a student facing online misinformation during an election—without

critical thinking skills, they might unknowingly spread false information.”

Logos: “According to a 2021 survey by the American Association of Colleges and

Universities, 93% of employers value critical thinking skills more than a candidate's
major.”

By blending ethos, pathos, and logos, this argument is not only persuasive but also
credible and intellectually balanced.
Week 14: Understanding Persuasive Writing Techniques

Introduction

Persuasive writing is the art of convincing readers to accept a particular viewpoint or

take a specific action. It goes beyond informing or entertaining—its primary goal is to
influence. In today’s information-rich world, students encounter persuasive writing
everywhere—from political speeches and editorials to advertisements and social
media posts. This week’s module explores key persuasive techniques and how they
operate within written texts to create impact. By understanding and applying these
techniques, students can craft more convincing and ethically sound arguments.

What is Persuasive Writing?

Persuasive writing is a form of argumentation aimed at influencing an audience’s

beliefs, attitudes, or actions. Unlike objective expository writing, persuasive writing
incorporates rhetorical strategies, emotional appeals, and stylistic choices to support a
particular stance. According to Bailey (2018), persuasive writing “requires an
awareness of the audience, a strong position, and evidence that is tailored to the
reader’s concerns and values.”

A persuasive writer does not merely state opinions but strategically presents them
using logic, credibility, and emotion to maximize effectiveness.

Core Techniques in Persuasive Writing

1. The Rhetorical Triangle Revisited

We continue to rely on Aristotle’s three appeals—ethos, pathos, and logos—
which remain the foundation of persuasive writing. Successful writers blend
these appeals depending on context and audience:

• Use ethos to build trust (e.g., citing credible sources, using fair tone).

• Use pathos to appeal to emotions (e.g., storytelling, vivid language).

• Use logos to appeal to logic (e.g., data, statistics, examples).

2. Repetition
Repetition reinforces an idea and increases its memorability. Phrases like “Yes,
we can” or “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle” stick because they are repeated.
According to Cottrell (2017), controlled repetition helps readers remember the
writer’s core message.

3. Rhetorical Questions
These are questions asked for effect rather than answers. They prompt readers
to think and engage with the argument. For example: “Shouldn’t every child have
access to clean water?”

4. Analogies and Metaphors

Comparisons help simplify complex ideas. Saying “Time is money” makes an
abstract concept more relatable. Analogies can build understanding and
emotional connection.

5. Inclusive Language
Words like we, our, and us make the audience feel included. For example: “We
all have a role to play in preserving the environment.”

6. Exaggeration and Hyperbole

Used carefully, hyperbole can dramatize a point and capture attention. “A
million voices were silenced” is not literal but emphasizes severity.

7. Cause and Effect

Persuasive writers often use cause-effect logic to show consequences: “If we
don’t act now, the damage to our oceans will be irreversible.”

8. Counterarguments and Rebuttals

Good persuasive writing anticipates objections. By acknowledging the opposing
view and refuting it, writers demonstrate fairness and strengthen their argument.
Graff and Birkenstein (2021) refer to this as the “They Say / I Say” model, where
writers engage in conversation with others’ views.
Writing Essays Speculating about Causes or Effects

A cause or effect essay is a form of academic writing that explains why something
happens (the cause) and what happens as a result (the effect). These essays help
readers understand the relationship between events or actions. For example, if
someone writes about the causes of global warming, they might mention greenhouse
gas emissions and deforestation. If they focus on the effects, they could talk about
melting glaciers, rising sea levels, or extreme weather conditions. Sometimes, an essay
discusses both causes and effects together. This type of writing is important because it
builds analytical and critical thinking skills. It helps students see the connection
between ideas and write logically structured arguments based on observation and
reasoning.

Organizing Your Speculative Argument Effectively for Your Readers

To make your speculative argument clear and engaging for readers, it is important to
follow a logical structure that helps them understand your reasoning. Effective
organization enhances the flow of the essay and strengthens the impact of your
argument. A speculative argument usually begins with an introduction that presents the
issue or question and proposes one or more possible explanations or outcomes. This
introduction sets the tone and purpose of the essay, giving readers a clear idea of what
to expect.

Speculating about Causes or Effects

• Identify a clear issue or question: Begin with a specific issue that invites
speculation. This helps focus the essay and keeps the argument on track.

• Present possible causes or effects: Introduce a few logical causes or

outcomes related to the issue. These should be reasonable and based on
general knowledge or observable patterns.

• Support each speculation with reasoning or evidence: Even though you are
speculating, use logic, examples, or references to facts that make your points
more believable.

• Acknowledge alternative explanations: Strengthen your argument by

mentioning other possible causes or effects, and explain why your speculation is
still valid.
 • Use clear transitions to guide the reader: Connect your ideas using transitions
that highlight possibilities and relationships between causes and effects.
Phrases like “it is possible that,” “one likely outcome is,” “this may lead to,” and
“on the other hand” can help in clearly expressing speculative thoughts.
Maintaining coherence and unity across paragraphs ensures that the essay
reads smoothly and that your argument builds up clearly.

• Maintain logical flow and unity: Organize your points in a logical order so that
the reader can easily follow the development of your ideas.

• Conclude by reflecting on the importance of your speculation: End the essay

by summarizing the main ideas and suggesting the significance of exploring such
causes or effects.

Finally, the conclusion should restate the main argument or speculation and reflect on
its broader significance. It may also suggest what might happen if the speculation
comes true or emphasize why it is important to consider such possibilities. An effective
conclusion leaves the reader with a sense of completion and deeper understanding of
the topic. By organizing your speculative argument in this structured and thoughtful
way, you make your writing more persuasive and accessible to your audience.

Sample Topics

• Effects of fast food on health

• Causes of stress among college students

• Effects of watching too much television

• What causes traffic jams in cities?

Week 15: Structuring a Persuasive Essay

Introduction

Understanding how to structure a persuasive essay is essential to delivering a clear and

compelling argument. While persuasive techniques such as ethos, pathos, and logos
enhance the strength of an argument, the way an essay is organized plays an equally
important role. A well-structured essay enables readers to follow the argument
effortlessly and strengthens the overall impact of the message. This guide outlines each
component of a persuasive essay, providing practical tips, relevant examples, and
common pitfalls to avoid in order to help writers construct persuasive, coherent, and
effective essays.

What is a Persuasive Essay?

A persuasive essay is a type of academic writing in which you take a position on an

issue and aim to convince your reader to agree with that viewpoint or take a specific
action. It requires logical reasoning, credible evidence, and emotional appeal, all
presented in a clear and organized format.

The persuasive essay typically follows a five-paragraph format:

1. Introduction

2. Body Paragraph 1

3. Body Paragraph 2

4. Body Paragraph 3 (often a counterargument)

5. Conclusion

Let’s break down each of these sections.

1. Introduction: Hook, Background, Thesis

a) Hook:
Your first sentence should grab the reader’s attention. This can be a surprising statistic,
a rhetorical question, a quote, or a brief anecdote.
Example: “Every minute, a truckload of plastic enters our oceans—threatening marine
life and our own food chain.”

b) Background:
Give your reader context about the issue. What’s the debate about? Why is it
important? Provide a few sentences that explain the topic neutrally.

c) Thesis Statement:
Your thesis is the most important sentence in your essay. It states your clear position
on the topic and outlines the main points you will argue.
Example: “Plastic bags should be banned because they harm marine ecosystems,
contribute to pollution, and there are sustainable alternatives available.”

Tip: Avoid vague thesis statements. Be specific and take a clear stance.

2. Body Paragraphs: Building Your Argument

Each body paragraph should focus on one main idea that supports your thesis. Use the
PEEL structure:

• Point: State the main idea clearly.

• Evidence: Provide facts, examples, statistics, or expert opinions.

• Explanation: Explain how your evidence supports your point.

• Link: Connect to the thesis or lead into the next paragraph.

Example Paragraph (based on the plastic bag ban thesis):

Point: Plastic bags significantly damage marine ecosystems.

Evidence: According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), over 100,000 marine animals
die each year due to plastic ingestion or entanglement.
Explanation: When plastic bags end up in oceans, animals like turtles mistake them for
food. This leads to internal injuries and death.
Link: This environmental harm is one major reason why banning plastic bags is
essential.

Tip: Use transitional words (furthermore, however, in addition, consequently) to help

your essay flow smoothly.

3. Counterargument Paragraph

Strong persuasive essays acknowledge the other side of the argument and
respectfully refute it. This shows that you’ve considered multiple perspectives and are
confident in defending your stance.
How to write it:

• Acknowledge a common opposing viewpoint.

• Refute it using evidence or reasoning.

• Reinforce your position.

Example:
“Some argue that banning plastic bags will inconvenience shoppers and increase
costs. However, reusable bags are affordable, durable, and reduce long-term waste
management costs. The minor inconvenience is outweighed by the environmental
benefits.”

Tip: Be respectful. Avoid sarcastic or dismissive language.

4. Conclusion: Reinforce and Inspire

Your conclusion should not simply repeat your introduction. It should:

• Summarize your key points.

• Reinforce your thesis in a new way.

• End with a call to action or a powerful closing thought.

Example Conclusion:
“In conclusion, the damage caused by plastic bags to marine life, human health, and
the environment is undeniable. A nationwide ban is not only necessary but urgent. It’s
time for us all—governments, businesses, and individuals—to take a stand and choose
sustainable solutions.”

Tip: Leave your reader with something to remember—whether it's a fact, a vision for the
future, or a personal challenge.
Checklist: Before You Submit Your Persuasive Essay

✓ Does your essay have a clear and specific thesis?

✓ Did you include at least three strong body paragraphs?

✓ Have you used a variety of persuasive techniques (ethos, pathos, logos)?

✓ Did you include a counterargument and rebuttal?

✓ Is your conclusion convincing and memorable?

✓ Have you used proper grammar, punctuation, and formal tone?

✓ Did you cite any external sources if you used data or quotations?

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Being overly emotional: Passion is good, but your essay must be grounded in
logic and evidence.

• Using weak evidence: Make sure your facts come from reliable sources.

• Overgeneralizing: Avoid statements like “Everyone knows…” or “All people

think…”

• Ignoring the opposing view: Always acknowledge and address

counterarguments.

• Lack of structure: Use paragraphs effectively, and follow the introduction-body-

conclusion model.

Example Topics for Practice

1. Social media platforms should regulate misinformation more strictly.

2. Fast food advertising aimed at children should be banned.

3. College education should be free for all students.

 4. Schools should require uniforms for all students.

5. E-books are better than printed books in modern education.

Choose one and write a persuasive essay using the structure you’ve learned. Practice
helps you master the form and build your confidence as a writer.

Conclusion

Understanding how to structure a persuasive essay is a vital skill in academic and

professional communication. By organizing your ideas effectively, supporting them with
solid evidence, and anticipating counterarguments, you become a more credible and
compelling writer. Whether you’re writing for a class assignment, a job application, or
social advocacy, these skills will help you express your ideas powerfully and
responsibly.

In the next stage of your learning journey, you'll apply these strategies to real-world
scenarios, refine your tone and style, and gain feedback to improve your argumentative
writing even further.