The branch of science that studies the preparation, properties, structure and reactions of material substances is

called chemistry (रसायन शास्त्र). Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter.

It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and
compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes
they undergo during reactions with other substances.

Chemistry is indeed the branch of science that deals with the study of:

1. Preparation: How substances are formed and synthesized.

2. Properties: The characteristics and attributes of substances, such as their physical and chemical properties.

3. Structure: The arrangement of atoms and molecules in substances.

4. Reactions: The changes that occur when substances interact with each other, including chemical reactions and
transformations.

Material substances/ Matter - Anything which occupies space and has mass is called matter. Matter is found in three
major states: solid, liquid and gas. Matter is made of atoms. An atom is the basic unit of a matter. Everything around
us, for example, book, pen, pencil, water, air, all living beings, etc., are composed of matter.

Matter in any physical state is composed of smaller particles such as atom, molecules or ions. An atom is the smallest
particle of an element which exhibits all the properties of that element. Atoms of the same element or different
elements combine to form a molecule. Atoms or group of atoms having a charge (positive or negative) are called
ions.

In the world of physical science,

a substance is simply a pure form of matter. In other words, a substance is matter that contains only one type of
atom or molecule.
Meanwhile, a mixture contains a combination of different atoms or molecules and is therefore said to be impure.\

Elements are the simplest form of matter, which means they cannot be broken down into smaller components
physically or chemically. All elements are listed on the periodic table, and there are at least 118 of them known to
man! Examples of elements include carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and sodium (Na), just to name a few.

Compounds, on the other hand, are made up of two or more different elements held together by chemical bonds
and functioning as a unit. While compounds are also pure substances, they differ from elements because compounds
can be broken down into simpler components (the elements that make up the compound). Some examples of
compounds are carbon dioxide (CO2), rust (Fe2O3), and table salt (NaCl).

In everyday usage, a “chemical” often refers to an undesirable additive or contaminant. For example, pesticides in
water or artificial colourings in food are “chemicals.” But, chemistry sees chemicals somewhat differently.
A chemical is matter with a defined composition or a chemical is any substance that has a defined composition. It is
an element, an alloy, or a compound made up of two or more elements combined in a fixed ratio. For instance, water
(H2O) is a chemical because it consists of hydrogen and oxygen combined in a 2:1 ratio. All matter either is a chemical
or else consists of chemicals.

A material is a substance or mixture of substances that constitutes an object. Materials can be pure or impure, living
or non-living matter.

Physical (भौतिक)
Meaning: Related to form, structure, and external appearance — without changing the substance.
Examples:

o Melting of ice → water

o Cutting paper → same material, different shape
o Boiling water → water stays water
🧠 It changes the state, size, or shape but not the identity of the substance.

Chemical (रासायनिक)
Meaning: Related to internal composition and reactions — the substance changes into something new.
Examples:

o Burning paper → ash and gases

o Rusting of iron
o Cooking food (raw to cooked = new chemical compounds)

🧠 It changes the very nature of the material.

Mixtures
A mixture is an impure substance. It contains two or more kinds of elements or compounds or both physically mixed
together in any ratio. For example, tap water is a mixture of water and some dissolved salts. Lemonade is a mixture
of lemon juice, sugar and water. Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and other gases.
Soil is a mixture of clay, sand and various salts. Milk, ice cream, rock salt, tea, smoke, wood, sea water, blood, tooth
paste and paint are some other examples of mixtures. Alloys are mixtures of metals.
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous mixture
A mixture in which the components cannot be seen separately is called a homogeneous mixture. It has a uniform
composition and every part of the mixture has the same properties. Tap water, milk, air, ice cream, sugar syrup, ink,
steel, bronze and salt solution (Figure 10.4a) are homogeneous mixtures. A mixture in which the components can be
seen separately is called a heterogeneous mixture. It does not have a uniform composition and properties. Soil, a
mixture of iodine and common salt, a mixture of sugar and sand, a mixture of oil and water, a mixture of sulphur and
iron filings and a mixture of milk and cereals (Figure 10.4b) are heterogeneous mixture.

Separation of mixtures

Distillation = Evaporation + Condensation

A molecule is made up of two or more atoms chemically combined. Oxygen gas in the air that we breathe is made up
of two oxygen atoms chemically combined.

Ozone is a substance that is made up of three oxygen atoms chemically combined.

An atom of oxygen (O) and two atoms of hydrogen (H) combine to form a molecule of water (H2O). 2H2 + O2 
2H2O
 Mass, Shape and Volume of Solids, Liquids and Gases.

Compressibility of gases compared to liquids and solids

A pure substance is made up of only one kind of particles.
Pure substances may be elements or compounds.
An element is made up of same kind of atoms.
A molecule consists of two or more atoms.
Compound is the substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements.
Mixture is a physical combination of two are more substances.

Separation of Mixtures – Techniques

Filtering, Sieving, Churning, Threshing, Winnowing, Handpicking, Magnetic Separation, Sedimentation, Decantation.
Changes Around Us

Change is the law of nature. In our day - to - day life we see many changes around us. Weather changes periodically
(daily/ seasonly), season change periodically.

Classification of Changes

slow and fast changes

reversible and irreversible changes
physical and chemical changes
desirable and undesirable changes
natural and man - made changes

Physical change ka Example: Melting of ice, the solution of salt or sugar, stretching of rubber band.

Chemical change ka Examples: Burning of wood, Popping of popcorn, Blackening of silver ornaments, and Rusting of
iron.
Air is everywhere

- Atmosphere and its layers

- Composition
- Air for the survival of plants & animals - Respiration in plants, Photosynthesis and Respiration in Animals.
- Uses of air- Air is used for burning fuels like wood, coal, kerosene, LPG etc. Compressed air is used to fill tyres
of various kinds of vehicles. Air plays an important role in maintaining the water cycle in the nature. Blowing
air is used to turn the blades of wind mills. (The wind mills are used to draw water by running pumps, run
flour mills and to generate electricity).
Conservation of water

There is no change in the total quantity of water available on the earth. It remains the same. But the water useful for
plants, animals and man is decreasing day by day. It is called scarcity of water. What are the reasons for scarcity of
water?

The main reasons for water scarcity 1. Population explosion 2. Uneven distribution of rainfall 3. Decline of ground
watertable 4. Pollution of water 5. Careless use of water We should take care to prevent scarcity of water.
Otherwise,it is impossible for organisms to live on the earth. The only method of preventing scarcity of water is
conservation of water. Saving water for the future generations by using water carefully and in a limited way is
conservation of water.

Methods of water conservation: Mainly, two methods can be followed for the conservation of water. 1. Water
management Water management consists of the following factors: a. Bringing awareness about the bad effects of
throwing wastes into the water bodies b. Recycling of water by separating pollutants. c. Minimizing the use of
chemical fertilizers in agriculture. It reduces the pollution of underground water. d. Controlling deforestation e.
Adopting drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation in agriculture. By this way lesser amount of water can be used for the
irrigation 2. Rainwater harvesting Direct collection and use of rain water is called rainwater harvesting. There are two
types of rainwater harvesting. a. Collecting water from where it falls. (e.g): Collecting water from the roof tops of the
houses or buildings (Roof water harvesting). b. Collecting flowing rain water (e.g): Collecting rainwater by
constructing ponds with bund.

Importance/usages of water

In human body: Water in all cells, organs and tissues helps to regulate body temperature and maintain other
functions. On an average, the human body requires 2 – 3 litres of water per day for proper functioning. Water helps
in digestion of food and removal of toxins from the body.

Domestic uses: Apart from drinking, people use water for many other purposes. These include: cooking, bathing,
washing clothes, washing utensils, keeping houses and common places clean, watering plants, etc.

Agriculture: Water is also essential for the healthy growth of farm crops and farm stock and is used in the
manufacture of many products.

Industry: Industry depends on water at all levels of production. It is used as a material, a solvent and for generating
electricity.
Polymer chemistry has a positive impact on your everyday life. Many of the materials you use are linked to polymer
chemistry. When you get ready for school, you wear clothes, shoes, brush your teeth and take a school bag. Fibres
are made up of long chains of natural or synthetic polymers. The word ‘Polymer’ is of Greek origin. ‘Poly’ means
many and ‘mer’ means basic smaller unit. Polymers are very long chains made of repeating smaller molecules called
‘monomers’ that are joined together by covalent bonds and the process is called polymerization.

Polymers can be classified into natural and synthetic polymers.

Natural polymers are found in living systems that include proteins and carbohydrates in our bodies and cellulose in
wood and paper. They play a very important role in living things to provide structural materials and molecules
needed for life processes.
Protein polymers are made from amino acid monomers (20 different kinds of amino acids). Different combinations of
the amino acid monomers create many different protein polymers. Examples of protein polymers include DNA,
enzymes, silk, skin, hair, fingernails, feathers and fur.
Examples of carbohydrate polymers include cellulose, chitin and lignin found in plants. Cellulose is made of sugar
molecules and is the main component of cotton used in clothing. Chitin is found in the cell walls of fungi such as
mushrooms and exoskeletons of insects such as crabs and spiders. Lignin consists of a network of polymers and is
important in giving structure to plants.

Synthetic polymers are man-made polymers produced by using raw materials from petroleum oil and gas. Plastics are
synthetic polymers. When oils and gases are processed to make petrol, ethylene and propylene monomers are
removed as by products. We have already seen that polymer such as the Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) is made up of
many monomers joined together. Ethylene and propylene are the building block monomers that make up many
different types of plastics.
We wear clothes, use bags, rope, blankets, etc. in our daily life. They are made of fibres. Once upon a time, people
used natural fibres such as cotton and wool. Nowadays, we use a lot of synthetic fibres. All natural and synthetic
fibres are polymers.
Fibres that are obtained from plant or animal sources are called natural fibres. Examples include cotton, jute, coconut
fibre, hair, wool and silk. Fibres that are made using raw materials from petroleum are synthetic fibres. Examples
include polyester, acrylic and nylon.
PROPERTIES OF METALS
Physical properties
1. Physical state: All metals are solids at room temperature except mercury and gallium.
2. Lustre: Metals possess a high lustre (called metallic lustre).
3. Hardness: Most of the metals are hard and strong (exceptions: sodium and potassium can be cut with a knife)
4. Melting point and Boiling point: Usually, metals possess high melting and boiling points and vaporize only at high
temperatures (exceptions: gallium, mercury, sodium and potassium).
5. Density: Metals have a high density (exceptions: sodium and potassium are less dense than water).
6. Ductility: Metals are usually ductile. In other words, they can be drawn into thin wires without breaking.
7. Malleability: Metals are usually malleable, i.e, they can be beaten into thin sheets without cracking (except zinc
and mercury).
8. Conduction of heat and electricity: Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity; silver and copper excel in
this property (exception: tungsten)
9. Solubility: Usually, metals do not dissolve in liquid solvents.

Chemical Properties
• Valence electrons: Atoms of metals usually have 1,2 or 3 electrons in their outermost shell.
• Formation of ions: Metals form Positive ions by the loss of electrons and hence they are electro positive.
• Discharge of ions: Metals are discharged at the cathode during the electrolysis of their compounds.
• Atomicity: Molecules of metals in their vapour state are usually monoatomic.
• Nature of oxides: Oxides of metals are usually basic

Uses of Metals
- Iron is used for making bridges, engine parts, iron-sheets and bars.
- Copper is used for making electrical wires, coins and statue.
- Silver and gold are used for making jewels, and for decorative purposes and photography.
- Mercury is used in thermometers and barometers because of its high density and uniform expansion at different
temperature.
- Aluminium is used in electrical wires, cables and in aerospace industries.
- Lead is used in automobile batteries, X-ray machines.

Properties of Non-metals
- Non-metals occur as solids, liquids or gases at normal temperature. For example, sulphur and phosphorus occur in
solid state while bromine occurs in liquid state. Elements like oxygen, nitrogen etc., occur in gaseous state.
- Non-metals are generally not hard except diamond (a form of carbon).
- Non-metals have a dull appearance (Except diamond).
- Non-metals are generally soft and have low densities. The exception here is diamond (a form of carbon) which is the
hardest naturally occurring substance.
- Non-metals have low melting point and boiling point.
- Non-metals are non-malleable.
- Non-metals are not ductile. Carbon fibre is highly ductile.
- Non-metals are generally bad conductors of electricity. Graphite (a form of carbon) is an exception.
- Non-metals do not produce sound (non- sonorous) when hit.

Uses of Non-metals
- Diamond (a form of carbon) is used for making jewels, cutting and grinding equipments. Graphite is used in making
pencil lead.
Sulphur is used in the manufacturing of gun powder and vulcanization of rubber.
- Phosphorus is used to make match boxes, rat poison etc.
- Nitrogen is used for manufacturing ammonia.
- Chlorine is used as a bleaching agent and in sterilizing water.
- Hydrogen is used as a rocket fuel and hydrogen flame is used for cutting and welding purposes. Hydrogen is also
used as a reducing agent.
Physical properties of Metalloids
- Metalloids are solids at room temperature.
- They can form alloys with other metals.
- Some metalloids, such as silicon and germanium, can act as electrical conductors under specific conditions. Thus,
they are called semiconductors.
- Silicon which is a metalloid appears lustrous, but it is neither malleable nor ductile. It is brittle - a characteristic of
some non-metals. It is a much poorer conductor of heat and electricity than the metals.
- The physical properties of metalloids tend to be metallic, but their chemical properties tend to be non-metallic.

Uses of Metalloids
- Silicon is used in electronic devices.
- Boron is used in fireworks and as a fuel for ignition in rocket.

In some cases of mixtures, their components can be separated easily whereas in some other cases they cannot be.
Consider the two mixtures, one which contains salt and water, and the another which contains sand and water.
Water is the one of the components in both the mixtures. In the first case salt disolves in water. In the second case
the sand does not disolve in water. Sand in water can be separated by filtration but salt cannot be separated as it
dissolves in water to form a homogeneous mixture. This kind of homogenous mixtures are termed as “solutions”.

SOLUTIONS IN DAY-TO-DAY LIFE

One of the naturally existing solutions is sea water. We cannot imagine life on earth without sea water. It is a mixture
of many dissolved salts. The another one is air. It is a mixture of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other
gases. All the life forms on the earth are associated with solutions. Plants take solutions of nutrients for their growth
from the soil. Most of the liquids found in human body including blood, lymph and urine are solutions. Day to day
human activities like washing, cooking, cleaning and few other activities involve the formation of solutions with
water. Similarly, the drinks what we take, like fruit juice, aerated drinks, tea, coffee etc. are also solutions. Therefore,
the ability of water to form solutions is responsible for sustenance of life.

COMPONENTS OF SOLUTIONS

a solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

In a solution, the component which is present in lesser amount (by weight), is called solute and the component,
which is present in a larger amount (by weight) is called solvent.
Note: The process of uniform distribution of solute into solvent is called dissolution.

Saturated solution: A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved in a definite amount of the solvent at a given
temperature is called saturated solution. e.g. 36 g of sodium chloride in 100 g of water at 25°C forms saturated
solution.

Unsaturated solution: Unsaturated solution is one that contains less solute than that of the saturated solution at a
given temperature. e.g. 10 g or 20 g or 30 g of Sodium chloride in 100 g of water at 25°C forms an unsaturated
solution.

It is another kind of classification of unsaturated solutions. It expresses the relative concentration of two solutions
with respect to their solutes present in the given amount of the solvent. For example, you are given two cups of tea.
When you taste them, you feel that one is sweeter than the other. What do you infer from it? The tea which sweet
more contains higher amount of sugar than the other. How can you express your observation? You can say that the
tea is stronger. But a chemist would say that it is ‘concentrated’.
When we compare two solutions having same solute and solvent, the one which contains higher amount of solute
per the given amount of solvent is said to be ‘concentrated solution’ and the another is said to be ‘dilute solution’.

Solubility is defined as the number of grams of a solute that can be dissolved in 100 g of a solvent to form its
saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure.

pH scale is a set of numbers from 0 to 14 which is used to indicate whether a solution is acidic, basic or neutral.

- Acids have pH less than 7

- Bases have pH greater than 7
- A neutral solution has pH equal to 7
ROLE OF pH IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Are plants and animals pH sensitive? Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Living organisms can survive
only in a narrow range of pH change. Different body fluids have different pH values. For example, pH of blood is
ranging from 7.35 to 7.45. Any increase or decrease in this value leads to diseases. The ideal pH for blood is 7.4.

pH in our digestive system

It is very interesting to note that our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It helps in the digestion of food without
harming the stomach. During indigestion the stomach produces too much acid and this causes pain and irritation. pH
of the stomach fluid is approximately 2.0.
pH changes as the cause of tooth decay
pH of the saliva normally ranges between 6.5 to 7.5. White enamel coating of our teeth is calcium phosphate, the
hardest substance in our body. When the pH of the mouth saliva falls below 5.5, the enamel gets weathered.
Toothpastes, which are generally basic are used for cleaning the teeth that can neutralise the excess acid and prevent
tooth decay.
pH of soil
In agriculture, the pH of the soil is very important. Citrus fruits require slightly alkaline soil, while rice requires acidic
soil and sugarcane requires neutral soil.
pH of rain water
The pH of rain water is approximately 7, which means that it is neutral and also represents its high purity. If the
atmospheric air is polluted with oxide gases of sulphur and nitrogen, they get dissolved in the rain water and make its
pH less than 7. Thus, if the pH of rain water is less than 7, then it is called acid rain. When acid rain flows into the
rivers it lowers the pH of the river water also. The survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.
Properties of Acids
a) They have sour taste.
b) Their aqueous solutions conduct electricity since they contain ions.
c) Acids turns blue litmus red.
d) Acids react with active metals to give hydrogen gas.
Mg + H2 SO4 → MgSO4 + H2 ↑
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 ↑

e) Acids react with metal carbonate and metal hydrogen carbonate to give carbon dioxide.
Na2 CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2 O + CO2 ↑
NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2 O + CO2 ↑

f) Acids react with metallic oxides to give salt and water. CaO + H2 SO4 → CaSO4 + H2 O
g) Acids react with bases to give salt and water. HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2 O

Uses of Acids
- Sulphuric acid is called King of Chemicals because it is used in the preparation of many other compounds. It is used
in car batteries also.
- Hydrochloric acid is used as a cleansing agent in toilets.
- Citric acid is used in the preparation of effervescent salts and as a food preservative.
- Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, dyes, paints and drugs.
- Oxalic acid is used to clean iron and manganese deposits from quartz crystals. It is also used as bleach for wood and
removing black stains.
- Carbonic acid is used in aerated drinks.
- Tartaric acid is a constituent of baking powder.

Properties of Bases
a) They have bitter taste.
b) Their aqueous solutions have soapy touch.
c) They turn red litmus blue.
d) Their aqueous solutions conduct electricity.
e) Bases react with metals to form salt with the liberation of hydrogen gas.
Zn + 2 NaOH → Na2 ZnO2 + H2 ↑
f) Bases react with non-metallic oxides to produce salt and water. Since this is similar to the reaction between a base
and an acid, we can conclude that non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2 O
g) Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
KOH + HCl → KCl + H2 O
The above reaction between a base and an acid is known as Neutralisation reaction.
h) On heating with ammonium salts, bases give ammonia gas.
NaOH + NH4 Cl → NaCl + H2 O + NH3 ↑

Uses of Bases
(i) Sodium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of soap.
(ii) Calcium hydroxide is used in white washing of building.
(iii) Magnesium hydroxide is used as a medicine for stomach disorder.
(iv) Ammonium hydroxide is used to remove grease stains from cloths.

Properties of Salts
- Salts are mostly solids which melt as well as boil at high temperature.
- Most of the salts are soluble in water. For example, chloride salts of potassium and sodium are soluble in water. But,
silver chloride is insoluble in water.
-They are odourless, mostly white, cubic crystals or crystalline powder with salty taste.
- Salt is hygroscopic in nature.

Uses of Salts
Common Salt (Sodium Chloride - NaCl) It is used in our daily food and used as a preservative.
Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate-Na2 CO3)
i. It is used in softening hard water.
ii. It is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
Baking Soda (Sodium bicarbonate -NaHCO3)
i. It is used in making of baking powder which is a mixture of baking soda and tartaric acid.
ii. It is used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.
iii. Baking powder is used to make cakes and bread, soft and spongy.
iv. It neutralizes excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
Bleaching powder (Calcium Oxychloride -CaOCl2)
i. It is used as disinfectant.
ii. It is used in textile industry for bleaching cotton and linen.
Plaster of Paris (Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrate - CaSO4.½ H2 O)
i. It is used for plastering bones.
ii. It is used for making casts for statues.
Applied chemistry

Food, medicines, cosmetics, dress materials and gold covering ornaments are some of the items used in our day to
day life. They may differ in nature and applications. But all these are associated with chemistry. They are made of
synthetic / natural chemicals.
We face lot of difficulties in different means to lead our day to day life. Such difficulties make chemists to come out of
new ideas and theories.
For example, when people suffered from diseases, new chemical compounds were synthesized and used as drugs.
New techniques were also developed to diagnose diseases.
When farmers suffered due to low crop yield and pest-related problems in crop field, chemists developed new
chemical fertilizers and pesticides to combat these issues.
Thus chemical principles and theories are applied to various fields in order to achieve specific results or to solve real-
world problems. This is called applied chemistry.

Pharmaceutical chemistry deals with the preparation of drugs and study of the chemical composition, nature,
behavior, structure and influence of the drug in an organism.
Even though we use so many chemicals in our daily life, the chemicals used for treating diseases are termed as drug.
The word drug is derived from the French word 'droque' which means a dry herb.

Types of Drugs

- Anaesthetics - The drugs which cause loss of sensation are called Anaesthetics.
- Analgesics - Analgesics are the compounds which relieve all sorts of pains without the loss of consciousness.
These are also called as pain killer or pain relievers.
- Antipyretics - Antipyretics are the compounds which are used for the purpose of reducing fever (lowering the
body temperature to the normal).
- Antiseptics - Antiseptic is a substance that prevents infections caused by disease causing microorganisms or
pathogens. Antiseptics either kill the micro-organism or prevent their growth. Antiseptics are used externally
to cleanse wounds and internally to treat infections of the intestine and bladder.
- Antimalarial
- Antibiotics - Many microorganisms (bacteria, fungi and molds) produce certain chemicals which inhibit the
growth or metabolism of some other disease-causing micro-organisms. Such chemical compounds are known
as antibiotic.
- Antacids - Quite often, after eating oily and spicy food, one may feel uncomfortable due to some burning
sensation in stomach / food pipe. This is due to imbalance in the acidity in the stomach. Certain drug
formulations provide relief from such burning sensation. These are known as antacids.

Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry which deals with the relation between electrical energy and chemical
change. It is mainly concerned with the processes taking place between the electrode and solution having ions called
electrolyte.

Electrolytic Cell
It is an electrochemical cell which converts electrical energy into chemical energy i.e. in electrolytic cells, electricity is
used to bring about chemical reactions.
In electrolytic cells, when electricity is passed to the electrolyte, it dissociates into its constituent ions. These ions
undergo redox reaction forming the respective elements. This phenomenon is called Electrolysis.

Significance of electrochemistry
The subject of electro chemistry is of great significance. Some of its applications are given below.
i. It has been used to discover important technical processes for the production and purification of non-ferrous
metals, and for the electro- synthesis of organic compounds.
ii. Electrochemistry is used to predict whether a particular reaction will occur or not.
iii. The detection of alcohol in drunken drivers is possible through the electrochemical redox reaction of ethanol.
iv. Production of metals like aluminum and titanium from their ores involve electrochemical reactions.
v. Lead acid batteries, lithium-ion batteries and fuel cells are based on electrochemical cells. Fuel cell is used to bring
about direct conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.

Radiochemistry is the study of chemistry of radioactive and non-radioactive isotopes. In addition to that it could find
applications in medical field and environmental management also.

Radiocarbon dating: It is a method by which the age of fossil wood or animal is determined using C-14 isotope.

Diagnosis: Radioisotopes are found very useful to diagnose and understanded many diseases.

Radiotherapy: Radioactive isotopes are used in the treatment of many diseases. This kind of treatment is called
radiotherapy.
Agricultural chemistry involves the application of chemical and biochemical knowledge to agricultural production,
processing of raw materials into foods and beverages, and environmental monitoring and remediation. It deals with
scientific relation between plants, animals, bacteria and environment.

(a) Goals of agricultural chemistry Indian chemists and biochemists applied their knowledge and developed
modernized agricultural practices which involve use of synthetic fertilizers, genetically modified crops, and
equipments. It aims at producing sufficient nutritious food and feed the population in a sustainable way while being
responsible stewards of our environment and ecosystem. Based on the issues and challenges in agricultural
production, agricultural chemistry mainly focusses to achieve the following:
• Increase in crop yield and livestock
• Improvement of food quality
• Reducing cost of food production
(b) Applications of Agricultural Chemistry Chemical principles and reactions are most widely used in agriculture in
order to increase yield, to protect crops from diseases and to simplify the practice of agriculture. Various applications
are give below.

Soil Testing: Crop lands may have different kinds of soil with varying pH. Soil pH is one of the main criteria to be
considered for the selection of crop or remediation of soil. Soil testing involves determination of pH, porosity and
texture.
Chemical Fertilizers: Fertilizers are chemical compounds added to crop field for supplying essential micro and macro
nutrients required for crop growth. Ammonium nitrate, calcium phosphate, urea, NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorous and
Potassium), etc. are some of the fertilizers. Depending on the nature of soil, these fertilizers are used singly or as
mixtures.
Pesticides and Insecticides: Crops are prone to diseases caused by pests and insects. Chemically synthesized
pesticides and insecticides are used to solve these issues. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates and
carbamates are used as pesticides and insecticides.

Food chemistry is chemistry of foods which involves analysis, processing, packaging, and utilization of materials
including bioenergy for food safety and quality.

Food is one of the basic needs of human and animal. The food we eat also are made of chemicals. Any human might
require the following three kinds of food:
Body building foods: These are required for physical growth of body. E.g.
Proteins Energy giving foods: These are the foods that supply energy for the functioning of parts human body. E.g.
Carbohydrates and Fats.
Protective foods: These protect us from deficiency diseases. E.g. Vitamins and Minerals Every human requires all
these three kind of foods in right proportion for the smooth functioning of the body. The diet that contain all these
three foods in right proportion is called Balanced diet.

(a) Goals of food chemistry The main goal of food chemistry is to cater the needs of quality food to the population in
a sustainable way. In basic research, food chemists study the properties of proteins, fats, starches, and
carbohydrates, as well as micro components such as additives and flavourants, to determine how each works in a
food system. In application research, they often develop new ways to use ingredients or new ingredients altogether,
such as fat or sugar replacements.

(b) Chemicals in Food Food we eat in our day to day life contains natural or synthetic chemicals. They serve different
functions in human body. Nutrients: They are the most essential chemicals present in food. They are required for the
growth, physiological and metabolic activities of body. They are natural or synthetic. E.g. Carbohydrates, proteins,
vitamins and minerals. Food additives: These are the chemicals added to food for specialized functions.
Forensic chemistry applies scienctific principles, techniques, and methods to the investigation of crime.

In general, forensic chemists work in four steps in the investigation of crime.

Collection of Evidences: They collect physical evidences such as knife, instruments, materials, etc in a systematic way
and uncover their information using chemistry.
Analysis of evidences: In criminal cases, chemists analyze substances such as blood and DNA to attempt to determine
when and by whom the crime was committed.
Collaboration: To solve the crime, they discuss with other fellow investigators like police officers, detective and other
forensic scientists.
Report of findings: Finally, they prepare a report of the conclusion of the analysis.

The world of forensic chemistry, focusing on the theory and processes of chemistry in forensic analysis shows the role
that chemistry plays in criminal investigations. The following are some methods used in crime investigation by a
forensic chemistry lab.
Finger print: Finger print is one of the most important evidences in crime investigation. Fingerprints on smooth
surfaces can often be made visible by the application of light or dark powder, but fingerprints on cheque or other
documents are often occult (hidden). Occult fingerprints are sometimes made visible by the use of ninhydrin, which
turns purple due to reaction with amino acids present in perspiration. Fingerprints or other marks are also
sometimes made visible by exposure to high-powered laser light. Cyanoacrylate ester fumes from glue are used with
fluorescent dyes to make the fingerprints visible.
Biometrics: The science that involves the study and analysis of human body prints is known as biometrics. The
biometric system compares the body prints to the specimen data stored in the system to verify the identity of a
person.
Alcohol test: Drinkers can be easily identified by the use of applied chemistry. The person being tested blows through
a tube, which bubbles the breath through a solution of chemicals containing sulfuric acid, potassium dichromate,
water, and silver nitrate. Oxidation of the alcohol results in the reduction of dichromate to chromic ion, with a
corresponding change in colour from orange to green. An electrical device employing a photocell compares the
colour of the test solution with a standard solution, giving a quantitative determination of the alcohol content. The
test provides a quick and reproducible determination of the amount of alcohol in a person's breath and is a
numerical measure of the amount of alcohol in the bloodstream.