Hydrogeology Journal (2021) 29:1261–1278

[Link]

REPORT

Anthropogenic and geogenic influences on peri-urban aquifers

in semi-arid regions: insights from a case study in northeast Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Theresa Frommen 1 & Maike Groeschke 2 & Maximilian Nölscher 2 & Paul Koeniger 2 & Michael Schneider 1

Received: 12 April 2020 / Accepted: 2 January 2021 / Published online: 2 February 2021
# The Author(s) 2021

Abstract
Rapid urbanization has exerted considerable pressure on groundwater resources in Jaipur, India. Peri-urban areas are particularly
affected as the public supply infrastructure often does not reach this fast-growing fringe, which often lacks a planning strategy,
leading to an informal water supply based on groundwater. At the same time, the hills and historic reservoirs located in these areas
are important for groundwater recharge and, therefore, critical for sustainable groundwater-resource management. To understand
the local hydrogeology and the role of anthropogenic influences, a 2-year field study was carried out in northeastern Jaipur. The
aim was to develop a conceptual model on which a management concept can be built. The study comprised hydrochemical and
stable isotope analyses of water samples, depth-to-water measurements, a leveling survey and geophysical investigations. The
study revealed that the groundwater from both the Proterozoic hard rock and the overlying Quaternary alluvial aquifer generally
does not meet the Indian drinking water thresholds for nitrate concentration and/or total dissolved solids (TDS). While anthro-
pogenic activities are the main source of quantity problems (declining groundwater levels through overabstraction), the biggest
quality problems (nitrate up to 550 mg/L and TDS >500 mg/L) are most likely of geogenic origin and only enhanced by
anthropogenic impacts. Quantity and quality aspects improve significantly in areas influenced by recharge from the historic
reservoirs, leading to the conclusion that artificial recharge structures may be the way forward to improving community water
supply and that groundwater protection should be given priority in these areas.

Keywords Hydrochemistry . Groundwater management . Semi-arid regions . Urbanization . India

Introduction has huge influences on the natural resources, including

groundwater, and the prognosis of the development of
In India, the growth rate of the urban population between 2000 groundwater resources is particularly challenging due to the
and 2010 was 2.6%, and by 2050 another 404 million Indian interplay of various factors in the peri-urban environment. On
people are expected to live in cities (UN-Habitat and ESCAP one hand, water tables are decreasing in many urban areas in
2015). The cities’ fringes are most affected by this rapid India (MacDonald et al. 2016), a trend that can also be ob-
growth in population (Howard 2014), as large peri-urban areas served in semiarid rural areas in Rajasthan (Yadav et al. 2016).
form, characterized as transitional zones of mixed rural and On the other hand, urbanization can also lead to an increase in
urban uses in terms of economic, social, cultural and natural recharge rates, e.g. through leaking sewers and, hence, to ris-
resources (Phillips et al. 1999). The shift from rural to urban ing water tables (Foster 2001). Furthermore, apart from direct
anthropogenic impacts, meteorological patterns can play a
significant role, especially in north-central and southern
* Theresa Frommen India (Asoka et al. 2017).
[Link]@[Link] Peri-urban areas often serve as a source of water for
cities in India and worldwide (Butterworth et al. 2007).
1
Freie Universitaet Berlin, Hydrogeology Group, Malteserstr.74-100, Besides the water provided by the public water sup-
12249 Berlin, Germany pliers, which often use a significant share of groundwa-
2
BGR - Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, ter in their supply schemes, a large part of the cities’
Berlin, Hannover, Germany demand is being served by an informal water market, in
1262 Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278

which groundwater is transported, for example via pri- Materials and methods
vate tankers, from the outskirts to the city centers
(Prakash and Singh 2014). This informal market makes Study area
it nearly impossible to manage the groundwater abstrac-
tion in a sustainable way. At the same time, peri-urban Jaipur, the capital of the state Rajasthan in northwestern India,
areas often function as disposal sites for wastewater is situated between latitude 26.82 to 27.00° and longitude
from the cities. A failure to view the peri-urban space 75.73 to 75.85° (WGS 84) on the eastern border of the Thar
as a resource worth protecting and insufficient wastewa- Desert (Fig. 1). It is classified as a semiarid area with a long-
ter treatment capacities lead to the accumulation of term average annual rainfall of 565 mm in Jaipur district,
wastewater in lakes, ponds and lowlands with the ex- based on data from 1977 to 2006 (CGWB 2013). In all,
pected negative impacts on groundwater quality 90% of the annual rainfall takes place during the south-west
(Karpouzoglou et al. 2018). The lack of a sanitation monsoon from June to September (CGWB 2007). A high
and sewerage infrastructure in many unplanned peri- variability of the annual monsoonal precipitation amount
urban areas increases the effect of anthropogenic pollu- (300–700 mm) can be observed (Yadav et al. 2016).
tion of groundwater resources (Prakash and Singh 2014; The city is situated within the Proterozoic Aravalli
Sekhar et al. 2005), which is typically characterized by Mountain Range which extends over 700 km from North
elevated nitrate concentrations and occurrence of fecal Gujarat in the SW up to Delhi in the NE (Sharma 2009).
pathogens (MacDonald et al. 2016; Yadav et al. 2016). The steeply rising hills (up to 650 m NN) surrounding Jaipur
In addition, groundwater in peri-urban areas can also be from NE to W belong to the Alwar series of the
affected by agricultural activities, e.g. through the Mesoproterozoic Northern Delhi Fold Belt and mainly consist
(over)application of fertilizers (Rao 2008) and pesticides of fractured and partly weathered quartzite. The Geological
(Hussain and Hanisch 2014), or by the use of intensive Survey of India (GSI 2011) reports for the Alwar series a
irrigation practices that can lead to an increase of the feldspathic quartzite. In the occasionally wide valleys in-
natural salinity (MacDonald et al. 2016). between the NNE–SSW striking hills (GSI 2011) the bedrock
Besides anthropogenic sources of contamination, is covered by Quaternary alluvial sediments, which can reach
geogenic contaminants regionally lead to a deterioration a thickness of up to 100 m (CGWB 2007). The alluvium does
of groundwater quality. They are not restricted to peri- not only consist of fluvial sediments, but also aeolian sedi-
urban zones but may in cases complicate the use of ments and denudational material close to the hills, leading to
groundwater in these areas. Besides high concentrations a wide range of sediments from silt and fine sand to coarse
of fluoride, mostly found in northwestern and southern sand and gravel near the hills. Three fluvial phases during the
India (Podgorski et al. 2018), and arsenic—e.g. in large Quaternary reworked the sediments and formed the landscape
parts of the Indo-Gangetic plain and the Brahmaputra so that today buried river channels as well as undulating flu-
floodplain (Ghosh and Singh 2010)—elevated ground- vial plains can be found (CGWB 2013; GSI 2011). Kankar
water salinity is a frequent cause of concern in many layers, consisting of secondary calcite rich nodules, and clay
parts of India, posing difficulties for both irrigation and lenses occur at various depths within the Quaternary alluvium
drinking purposes (Bhardwaj 2005; MacDonald et al. (Antea International, unpublished report, 1999).
2016). Reasons are, besides the aforementioned irriga- Two peri-urban communities situated in the NE of Jaipur in
tion practices, saline intrusion in coastal areas as well as the subdistrict Amer were chosen as exemplary study areas due
historic marine influences, dissolution of evaporates and to their socio-economic, topographic and geologic heterogeneity.
t he e v a p or a t i o n o f s u r f a c e w a t e r a n d s ha l l o w Khara Kuaa (KK) is a well-established Hindu community lying
groundwater. at the foothills of the Aravallis behind Amer Fort, where two
To sum up, the processes within the peri-urban zone of historic water reservoirs are located. The main aquifer is the
Indian cities, influence groundwater availability and quality weathered part of the Proterozoic quartzite (fractured hard rock
significantly; yet, to date, the importance of these areas for aquifer). The water demand is partly covered by public water
groundwater protection and management are often not recog- supply (water from the surface-water dam Bisalpur mixed with
nized and therefore not considered in water management plan- local groundwater is supplied for 1 h/day or via tanker), by pri-
ning. This report presents the results of a detailed case study vate water tanker (local groundwater) and by groundwater drawn
conducted in two peri-urban areas in northeast Jaipur. The from hand pumps. The second study area, Nai Ki Thari (NKT), is
goal was to understand the regional and local hydrogeology, a Muslim community located in the flat plain 5 km outside of the
identify the most relevant processes and develop a conceptual current city boundary, which was developed only within the last
model to identify areas of special concern where water man- 20 years. The main aquifer is the Quaternary alluvium. More
agement solutions are especially important or would have a than 95% of the water supply is based on local groundwater, as
particularly large effect. there are no public water supply connections.
Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278 1263

Fig. 1 Map of India, showing Rajasthan and its capital Jaipur, which is between Pakistan and India; the final status of Jammu and Kashmir has
located at the eastern border of the Thar Desert. The Aravalli mountains not yet been agreed upon. Dotted line represents disputed borders
stretch to Delhi. Dashed line represents approximately the Line of Control

Data collection, mapping and well selection Wells for regular hydrochemical sampling were chosen
according to the following criteria:
A detailed mapping of the water infrastructure was con-
ducted to understand the role of groundwater in the target Condition. The well is in a good condition and the
zones and to identify wells suitable for hydrogeological pump is working.
investigations. Mapping activities included interviews Permission. The well owner (private or public) agreed to
about how and where groundwater is used by whom and a regular sampling.
about possible sources of contamination (e.g. location, Accessibility. The well is accessible by auto rickshaw or
construction and maintenance of septic tanks). An empha- foot during all seasons.
sis was laid on surface-water bodies and their possible Importance. The well has a high importance for the for-
connection to the aquifer. Data regarding the design of mal or informal water supply.
the wells were collected during interviews with well Distribution. Both communities and their surround-
owners and users, as no bore logs were available. ings are covered in a meaningful way by
1264 Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278

considering geology, surface-water bodies and pos- water samples and 12 rain samples. Surface-water samples
sible contamination sources. were taken regularly from two historic reservoirs and one
Depth. A large range of total depth of the wells is taalaab (lake, where greywater from the surrounding area gets
covered. accumulated) and once from two canals (nallahs). The sam-
pling at the lakes was mainly carried out with a 2-L plastic
As no official piezometer (only one abandoned bore bucket connected to a 1.5-m-long stick. Rain samples were
well used for this study as piezometer) was located taken on top of a small building to the east of Jaipur City (Lat:
within the study area, hand pumps and bore wells were 26.903073°, Long: 75.841136°) with a self-made rain isotope
selected as sampling points. collector using the design by Gröning et al. (2012). The sam-
ples were collected during seven rainfall events during the
Water sampling strategy monsoon season 2017 and at single rainfall events in
January and March 2017. They were filled in tightly sealed
Water samples were taken for analyses of major ions and glass vials without pretreatment and stored in a dark and cool
stable isotopes of water. For hydrochemical analyses, 121 place until analysis (Picarro L2120-i cavity ringdown analyz-
water samples were collected from a total of 34 wells and er) at the BGR laboratory in Hannover, Germany. All samples
two surface-water bodies (Fig. 2) from November to were analyzed as replicates, drift-corrected and calculated
December 2017 (Table 1). Thirty of these wells were chosen against international standards (VSMOW/VSLAP). The
for regular sampling at a 3–5-month interval, the number vary- values are given as δ-value in ‰. Analytical error for a quality
ing slightly at each campaign due to some wells falling dry or check sample measured in each sequence is better than 0.2 and
pumps braking. Additionally, one rain sample was collected 0.8‰ for δ18O and δ2H, respectively.
for a full hydrochemical analyses in January 2017.
At all wells, except the piezometer, the installed pumps Depth-to-water measurements, leveling and
(manual or electric) were used for sampling. Because of fre- geophysical survey
quent power cuts, reluctance of well owners, wastage of water
at private wells, or environmental conditions (manual For the regular water-table measurements every 2 months, 30–
pumping at >40 °C), prepumping was difficult at some sam- 50 wells were chosen within both communities and their sur-
pling points. In such cases, sampling was conducted at the roundings (~30 km2, elevation difference of about 45 m) in-
usual pumping times of the wells. In this way, it was guaran- cluding hand pumps, piezometers, bore wells, dug wells and
teed that the well was already running for more than 30 min. step wells. The number of wells varied slightly from campaign
The physicochemical parameters —temperature (T), electrical to campaign as some wells went dry, were closed, or were
conductivity (EC), pH, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), completely overgrown. A water level data logger (Solinst)
dissolved oxygen (O2)—were measured on-site by customary was installed in an unused hand pump tapping the fractured
probes with a digital portable multimeter (Hach HQ40D). quartzite aquifer. A leveling survey was conducted to deter-
After a complete screening in the first sampling campaign, mine the absolute elevation of the 31 most important wells.
colorimetric tests to determine redox-sensitive species—(am- The applied D-GPS Leica Viva GS14 system can give, under
monium (NH4+), nitrite (NO2−), nitrate (NO3−), sulfide favorable conditions, a horizontal accuracy of 8 mm + 1 ppm
(S 2 − )—were applied in the field wherever necessary and a vertical of 15 mm + 1 ppm when applying the RTK
(Table S1 of electronic supplementary material, ESM). mode (real time kinematic) with a single baseline (Leica
Bicarbonate was determined using a titrimetric test (accuracy 2016). To get more information about the thickness of the
0.2 mmol/L). All samples were filtered through a 0.2-μm pol- Quaternary alluvial sediments/aquifer and the distribution of
yethersulfone membrane filter and samples for cation analysis thickness of possible clay layers, 30 geoelectrical resistivity
were acidified with ultra-pure 60% nitric acid to pH <2, before soundings were conducted in Nai Ki Thari. The soundings
being filled in polyethylene bottles and stored under cold con- were recorded with a computerized resistivity meter CRM-
ditions. The storage period lasted from a few days up to 500 and the Schlumberger’s configuration was adopted.
1 month. Cations were analyzed by ICP-OES (Optima 2100
PerkinElmer) and anions by ion chromatography (Dionex ICS Statistical methods for hydrochemical facies
1100) at the hydrogeochemical laboratory at the Institute of interpretation
Geological Science, Freie Universitaet Berlin, Germany.
Samples showing a charge balance error (CBE) below 10% Multivariate statistical analysis (MSA) was applied and com-
were considered for further analysis (King et al. 2014). pared to graphical methods (Durov plots, binary plots). For
A total of 152 water samples for stable isotope analysis that, the original data base was edited. As a first step, only the
were taken between November 2016 and October 2018. Out groundwater samples from one sampling campaign (October
of the 152 samples, 112 are groundwater samples, 28 surface- 2017) were used to avoid duplicates which could lead to an
Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278 1265

Fig. 2 Maps showing a the locations of the study areas, and b the wells and surface-water bodies used for regular hydrochemical sampling according to
the hydrochemical groups determined by HCA

overestimation for certain wells. The October 2017 sampling variables were reduced to 17 variables (main ions, EC, pH,
campaign was chosen because all samples of this campaign O2, Br, Sr, Zn, F, Ba, B) including only variables with results
show a CBE within ±3%. Regarding the input parameters, the for all samples (Güler et al. 2002). Values below the detection
1266 Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278

Table 1 Number and type of

wells for the sampling campaigns Type of sampling point Nov/ Apr 2017 Oct 2017 Dec 2017
Dec 2016 pre-monsoon post-monsoon winter
winter

Bore well 16 13 14 11
Hand pump 11 12 14 14
Bore well (water supplier) 2 2 2 1
Dug well 2 1 0 0
Piezometer 1 1 0 0
Lake 1 0 2 0
Rain 1 0 0 0
Total 34 29 32 26

limit were replaced by multiplying the respective lower detec- Results

tion limit with 0.55 to avoid nonnumerical values. This simple
substitution method is possible if the data set shows only a Out of the 121 water samples taken in total for hydrochemical
small portion (<10%) of censored values (Sanford et al. 1993) analysis (Table 1; Table S2 of ESM), 93 samples are
and if the choice of the substitution method does not have an used for further interpretation based on their belonging
effect on the final geochemical interpretation (Miesch and to the regular sampling campaigns and on their analyt-
Barnett 1976). In a subsequent step, descriptive statistics were ical accuracy (CBE < 10%).
calculated and histograms were generated using the statistical
software statistiXL 2.0, which can be used as an add-in with
Microsoft Excel. Based on this, the data were checked for Hydrochemical and hydrogeological characterization
normal distribution as multivariate statistical methods assume
a normal distributed data set. As a result, all variables, except Identification of hydrochemical groups
EC, pH and Ba, were log-transformed to achieve a more nor-
mal distribution. Both, the transformed and the untransformed Based on the HCA, which was conducted with ground-
values were then standardized by calculating their standard water samples from 34 locations, it was possible to
scores to guarantee that all variables are equally weighted in distinguish two groups. Group 1 represents samples as-
the following multivariate statistical calculations regardless of sociated with the Proterozoic hard rock aquifer and
their magnitude (Güler et al. 2002). group 2 is associated with the Quaternary alluvial aqui-
Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was chosen as it fer. A third group represents surface-water samples from
provides the possibility to generate homogenous groups, two locations (Table 2). Plotting the HCA groups and
which helps to define hydrochemical facies (Newman outliers on a map, reveals that they roughly represent
et al. 2016). The distance/similarity measure was calcu- the two study areas generally matching the occurrence
lated with the squared Euclidean distance method. In of the respective aquifers (Fig. 2). However, there are
order to avoid a tendency in the subsequent analysis, some deviations: (1) the easternmost part of Nai Ki
the HCA was first performed with the nearest neighbor Thari belongs to group 1 (hard rock aquifer), which
clustering method with which outliers can be identified consists otherwise of all wells located in and around
(Daughney and Reeves 2005, King et al. 2014). Khara Kuaa, (2) group 2 (alluvial aquifer) consists
Subsequently, the clustering was performed following mainly of wells in Nai Ki Thari and the plain between
Ward’s method. Güler et al. (2002) had shown that the two study areas, but one hand pump (KK_HP20)
the combination of these methods gives best results for close to Khara Kuaa also falls into this group.
hydrochemical data. Next to the distance matrix and the The graphical evaluation using a Durov plot of the samples
clustering strategy, results of the HCA are displayed as grouped according to the HCA, including the outliers and the
a dendrogram giving a visual summary of the grouping. surface-water samples shows that the main difference between
To avoid an unpractically large number of groups and group 1 and group 2 is the mineralization, here shown as total
subgroups in the HCA, four locations were classified as dissolved solids (TDS) in mg/kg, with the latter being more
outliers in the HCA (KK_OBS02, KK_BW08, mineralized than the first (Fig. 3). EC values of 1,457 μS/cm
NKT_DW02, Amer Inflow) due to their greatly differ- in the historic water reservoir and of 1,082 μS/cm in the
ing chemical properties. Taalaab are lower than in most groundwater samples.
Table 2 All samples considered for interpretation divided into three groups and eight subgroups with respective characteristics and mean values for important parameters (rain sample not shown here)
Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278

Parameter Group 1 (associated with the hard rock aquifer) Group 2 Group 3
(associated with the alluvial aquifer) (surface water)

Amera Hillside NKT East Amer Valley Amer Plainb NKT North NKT West Historic Reservoir Taalaab
1-1 1-2 1-3 2-1 2-2 2-3 3-1 3-2

Location Study area KK and Easternmost part Valley near Amer Plain area between Northernmost part West part of Upgradient of Downgradient
wells at hillsides of study area NKT Fort, downgradient KK and NKT of study area NKT study area NKT Amer Valley of Khara Kuaa
of historic reservoirs
Housing Dense Dense Dense Sparsely Sparsely Dense Sparsely Sparsely
Land use Built-up Built-up, Built-up Agriculture, built-up Agriculture Built-up, Forest Fallow
agriculture, agriculture,
industry industry
No. of wells 8 2 5 8 1 6 1 (lake) 1 (lake)
Dominant water type Ca-Cl Na-Cl Na-HCO3 Na-Cl Na-Cl Na-Cl
(Na-Cl)
EC [μS/cm] 2,822 3,586 1,325 4,230 5,470 5,056 1,457 1,082
(±582) (±322) (±375) (±1,038) (±353) (±653) – –
pH 6.47–7.11 6.91–7.18 6.84–7.8 6.74–7.34 6.75–7.2 6.99–7.65 7.74 10.29
SiO2 [mg/L] 44.0 28.7 31.6 35.5 [31.5]c 29.1 25.6 – –
(±7.4) (±0.9) (±3.0) (±12.1)[6.6] – (±2.1)
NO3 [mg/L] 318 89 71 161 210 164 bdl 1.65
(±110) (±3) (±25) (±61) (±6) (±35) –

a
Amer is the name for a subdistrict as well as for the city around Amer Fort and, therefore, serves as root name for four of the seven subgroups with Amer Inflow, Plain and Valley containing sample
locations in the surrounding of both study areas KK (Khara Kuaa) and NKT (Nai Ki Thari; Fig. 2)
b
One sample has a CBE of −11.2%
c
Concentrations given in squared brackets without KK_HP20
1267
1268 Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278

Fig. 3 The differences between the two HCA groups (blue circle: group 1, red circle: group 2,) can be also seen in the Durov plot

Hydrochemical characterization of subgroups type. SiO2 concentration is, with 44.0 ± 7.4 mg/L, the
highest of the area (Table 2). All samples show high ni-
Groups 1 and 2 were divided into three subgroups each, while trate concentrations between 125 and 555 mg/L. The
group 3 was divided into two subgroups (Table 2). groundwater of KK_BW03 always shows concentrations
>20% meq NO 3 and the samples from KK_HP01,
Subgroup 1-1 (Amer Hillside) The subgroup Amer Hillside KK_HP02 and KK_HP16 always have concentrations
consists of all four hand pumps located in the study area >15% meq NO3 related to the total anion concentration.
Khara Kuaa (KK_HP01, KK_HP02, KK_HP15,
KK_HP16), one bore well located close to it Subgroup 1-2 (NKT East) Two wells, situated at the eastern end
(KK_BW03) and three more hand pumps in the wider of the study area Nai Ki Thari, fall into this subgroup
surroundings but also located close to hills (KK_HP10, (NKT_BW25, NKT_BW42). They have a higher EC—
KK_HP24 and KK_HP04; Fig. 2). EC values in all 26 between 3,280 and 3,950 μS/cm —than the samples of sub-
samples from the eight locations vary between 1,521 group 1-1, but still considerably lower than the average EC of
and 4,060 μS/cm (average 2,822 ± 582 μS/cm). This cor- group 2. The groundwater shows a Na-Cl water type and one
responds to TDS between 1,272 and 2,722 mg/L, exceed- of the highest SiO2 concentrations (up to 29.3 mg/L) com-
ing by far the acceptable limit of 500 mg/L given by the pared to the other wells located within the study area Nai Ki
Bureau of Indian Standards (2012), with 14 samples even Thari. The nitrate concentrations of 80–100 mg/L are
exceeding the permissible limit (in absence of alternate comparatively low but still exceed the Indian drinking
source) of 2,000 mg/L. However, it is still the second water threshold value of 45 mg/L by twofold (Bureau of
lowest mineralized subgroup in the investigated area after Indian Standards 2012). The similarity of NKT East to
subgroup 1-3 Amer Valley (Table 2). The groundwater samples from Khara Kuaa (Amer Hillside) is mainly
chemistry is dominated by Ca-Cl except for two samples, coming from a comparable TDS and the main cation
KK_HP10 and KK_HP24, which show a Na-Cl water concentrations, namely Ca and Mg (Fig. 3).
Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278 1269

Subgroup 1-3 (Amer Valley) The groundwater in Amer Valley NKT_BW47, NKT_BW49). They have the second highest
(KK_HP03, KK_HP19, KK_HP23, KK_BW02, average EC of 5,056 μS/cm (4,560–6,200 μS/cm) and the
KK_DW03), situated next to the study area Khara Kuaa and highest pH range which is slightly alkaline (6.99–7.65).
downgradient of the historic water reservoirs shows compar- SiO2 concentration is the lowest of all groups with an average
atively low EC values between 760 and 1,951 μS/cm with an concentration of 25.6 mg/L. Nitrate concentrations vary be-
average of 1,325 ± 375 μS/cm. Unlike the groundwater in tween 100 and 216 mg/L (average 164 mg/L).
Amer Hillside (subgroup 1-1), the dominating anion is
HCO3 followed by Cl. On the cation side, Na is the main Outliers Four outliers were not grouped in the HCA analysis,
ion followed by Ca. Nitrate concentrations do not exceed of which three were discarded for further interpretation alto-
108 mg/L; the average is 71 mg/L. The SiO2 concentration gether. The piezometer KK_OBS02, located in the area Amer
(31.6 ± 3.0 mg/L) is lower than in the neighboring subgroup Valley (subgroup 1-3), shows similar EC values as the other
1-1 (Amer Hillside) but, in consideration of the relatively low samples of this area. However, the pH is more alkaline
overall mineralization, it is still high. (pH 8.46) and the water is of Na-Cl type. KK_BW08, a bore
well located in the area of Amer Plain (subgroup 2-1), shows
Subgroup 2-1 (Amer Plain) Going further away from the val- unusually high sulfate concentrations, probably resulting from
ley and historic water reservoirs in the easterly direction, a anthropogenic activities. In the dug well NKT_DW02, located
plain area between hill ridges opens (Fig. 2). The wells from in the area of Nai Ki Thari, the large open surface of the well
this area (KK_BW09, PHED_01, PHED_03) fall together leads to DO concentrations close to oxygen saturation with all
with the wells located in the middle of the study area Nai Ki related influences on the redox chemistry. However, one of
Thari (NKT_BW01, NKT_BW06, NKT_BW09, the outliers, Amer Inflow, a hand pump located in the north of
NKT_BW15) into the subgroup Amer Plain. In addition, both study areas, is probably not influenced by anthropogenic
one hand pump located close to Khara Kuaa (KK_HP20) activities and therefore serves as a reference for pristine, un-
belongs to this subgroup. Amer Plain shows again high EC contaminated groundwater. It shows a significantly lower
values (2,840–6,060 μS/cm) and mainly a Na-Cl water type. mineralization than all other samples, with an EC of
Including the well KK_HP20, which has the highest SiO2 576 μS/cm.
concentrations (59.3 mg/L) of all samples, the average con-
centration would give a result of 35.5 mg/L SiO2. However, Stable isotope analyses of water samples
the other samples within the subgroup show concentrations
between 24 and 40 mg/L SiO2, resulting in an average con- The δ18O and δ2H values in 12 rain samples range from 2.4 to
centration of 31.5 mg/L. Nitrate concentrations vary between −14.2‰, and 34.1 to −102.2‰, respectively (Fig. 4a). They
68 and 250 mg/L. The average nitrate concentration of result in a local meteoric water line (LMWL) for Jaipur of y =
161 mg/L exceeds the Indian drinking water threshold value 7.8x + 9.1. The historic reservoirs show a very wide range of
nearly fourfold. One sample from KK_HP20 was ex- δ18O and δ2H values (from 7.8 to 0.0‰ and 24.5 to −12.3‰,
cluded for the calculation as it shows an extreme outlier respectively), while the taalaab shows only slight variations,
with 567 mg/L NO3. In general, Amer Plain is the sub- between 1.2 and 0.2‰ for δ18O, and between −8.9 and –
group with the highest variance in all physico-chemical 16.5‰ for δ2H (Table S3 of ESM). The nallah samples are
parameters in the associated wells. more negative than the other surface-water samples and plot
close to the groundwater samples. The regression line through
Subgroup 2-2 (NKT North) The subgroup NKT North consists the water samples of the historic reservoir (y = 4.6x + 9.9) has
of only one well (NKT_BW41) located in the northeast part of a slope of 4.6 which is typical for evaporation lines for arid to
the study area Nai Ki Thari. It is the subgroup with the highest semiarid regions (Sharp 2007). All groundwater samples, with
mineralization (5,100–5,850 μS/cm). The groundwater is of the exception of KK_HP26, have isotopic compositions be-
Na-Cl type. In contrast to the neighboring wells of Nai Ki tween −2.5 and − 5.8‰ for δ18O and between −21.9 and −
Thari grouped into Amer Plain and NKT West, the proportion 38.8‰ for δ2H (Fig. 4b). The most negative δ-values belong
of HCO3 in the total anion content is lower (14.3–21.6 meq%) to the hand pumps situated upgradient of the study areas and
which also results in a lower pH range from 6.75–7.2. The grouped into Amer Inflow (KK_HP08, NKT_HP12). These
SiO2 concentrations are 29.1 mg/L, comparable to subgroup samples plot very close to the LMWL indicating that they are
1–2 (NKT East). Nitrate concentrations are second highest of not much influenced by evaporation. The samples of the
all subgroups with values between 201 and 214 mg/L. groundwater subgroups Amer Hillside, NKT East, Amer
Plain, NKT North and NKT West (1-1, 1-2, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3)
Subgroup 2-3 (NKT West) The wells situated mainly in the seem to be located on an evaporation or mixing line, while
western part of Nai Ki Thari form the subgroup NKT West the samples of the subgroup Amer Valley (1-3) plot on a
(NKT_HP01, NKT_HP04, NKT_BW03, NKT_BW13, cluster around −3.4 and − 28.9‰ for δ 18 O and δ 2 H,
1270 Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278

respectively. The sample from hand pump KK_HP26 has Superficial N–S striking outcrops of the quartzite in
much higher δ18O and δ2H values (5.7 and 17.3‰) than all the east of Khara Kuaa probably lead to local changes
other groundwater samples, and plots in the region of the of the groundwater flow direction towards the southeast.
historic reservoir samples (Fig. 4b). The data of the water level logger shows the development
of the water table at the quartzite aquifer from premonsoon
season (end of April 2017) until postmonsoon season (end of
Groundwater flow and aquifer characteristics September 2017; Fig. 6). The data gap is caused by a rapid
water-table decline below the depth of the installed logger,
Based on the geoelectrical resistivity soundings, two main which was then installed at a deeper level on 15 July 2017.
lithologies could be distinguished in Nai Ki Thari: alluvium Based on the data it can be concluded that the water table of
and quartzite, whereby the quartzite is divided into a smaller the quartzite aquifer dropped by about 20 m within 2 months
weathered and a hard layer. The weathered layer is situated at in the premonsoon season from May to beginning of July (red
the transition between the alluvium and the hard rock (Figs. dotted line). During monsoon, the aquifer reacts within several
S1–S3 of ESM). The alluvium has its maximum thickness in days to rainfall events; however, all interpretation is only a
the central part of Nai Ki Thari with quartzite at depth of 50– rough assumption as both the data from the level logger and
60 m. However, it is probable, that the hard rock was not from the weather station are incomplete, and no corrections
detected with the given configuration so the thickness for changes in air pressure were done.
of the alluvium may be even greater. The shallowest
occurrence of quartzite is encountered in the northeast
and southwest of the investigated area (Figs. S1–S3 of
ESM) with quartzite at a depth range of 30–40 m below Discussion
ground level (mbgl). The deeper parts of the alluvium
and the quartzite appear to be water saturated. The gen- Two aquifers exist in the northeastern part of Jaipur, a frac-
eral groundwater flow direction is roughly from west to tured and partly weathered hard rock aquifer and an alluvial
east, towards Tributary E and Dhund River (Fig. 5). aquifer. The geology is heterogeneous, with large variations in

Fig. 4 a The Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL) based on samples groundwater samples from hand pumps grouped into Amer Inflow are
taken in Jaipur (orange square) is similar to Global MWL (GMWL). close to the rain signature indicating a recharge area. All other ground-
Surface-water samples (circles) show clear impact from evaporation. water samples plot roughly on a line between the two end members. b
Samples from hand pump KK_HP26 (blue cross), 100 m downgradient Details of the groundwater isotopes plotted with LMWL and GMWL
of the historic reservoir, show also evaporation impact. Isotopic values of
Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278 1271

Fig. 5 a Locations of the study areas and the Kanota Dam catchment, b Groundwater contour lines based on premonsoon depth-to-water measurements
at 24 wells, April 2017 (Table S4 of ESM)

depth-to-hard rock. A statistical analysis (HCA) of the samples obtained mostly from sampling points of which key
physico-chemical parameters made it possible to group the information (total depth, well design, bore log) do not exist.
1272 Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278

Fig. 6 Level logger data of the

hand pump tapping the quartzite
aquifer in Khara Kuaa (KK_
HP18). Red-dotted line shows the
probable date range of the well
running dry. Rainfall data are in-
complete. Days with missing data
are indicated by gaps within the
blue bars. Rainfall data are re-
trieved for Jaipur, Sanganer
weather station, from
[Link]

The resulting groups show that, generally, a clear distinction small soil cover and in the fractured parts of the quartzite
can be made between the two aquifers. Locally, mixing and which are then leached to the saturated zone during the rainy
interactions between both aquifers were identified, especially season (Garduño et al. 2011). The sources for the ions, apart
in the southeastern part of the alluvial aquifer. They show from the rain itself, are feldspar, glimmer and iron-oxide min-
further that the historic reservoirs play a major role in ground- erals partly grown within the quartzite and partly filling the
water recharge. These findings correspond with the processes fractures. Microprobe analysis (results not shown here) show
identified through stable isotopes analysis of water samples that for nearby hard rock samples, quartz and albite show a
and through water level measurements revealing a general speckled appearance. As Na is well transportable in water, it is
groundwater flow direction from west to east (and locally assumed that the albite developed during hydrothermal activ-
towards the southeast). ities at greenschist-facies conditions. High nitrate concentra-
tions are usually linked to anthropogenic activities. However,
Hard rock aquifer several facts point towards a geogenic origin in the hard rock
aquifer. Firstly, some of the hand pumps with the highest
Moderately high EC values, high concentrations of SiO2 and nitrate concentrations are located in areas hardly affected by
bicarbonate, and very high nitrate concentrations are the char- anthropogenic influences as yet (KK_HP16, KK_HP02).
acteristics of the groundwater from the Proterozoic hard rock Latrines, sewage canals, and agriculture were not found
aquifer, which is (undiluted and not mixed) best represented around the wells or upgradient. Secondly, sample concentra-
by subgroup 1-1 (Amer Hillside). Samples from this subgroup tions of up to 555 mg/L NO3− exceed the concentration ranges
were collected in an area where the hard rock crops out at the of typical contamination of anthropogenic origin. Total nitro-
ground surface or is only covered by a thin layer of sediments gen (TN) concentrations in raw sewage influent at wastewater
(<10 m). The SiO2 average concentration of 44 mg/L is in the treatment plants (WWTPs) vary strongly, with reported values
range of literature values for groundwater of quartzite rocks, between 12 and 88 mg/L (Alemu et al. 2018; Hanson and Lee
being only slightly above the concentrations of 10–40 mg/L 1971; Reddy et al. 2017). TN concentrations in septic tank
reported for the Delhi quartzite (Datta and Tyagi 1996). The effluents are in a similar range (Lusk et al. 2017). Assuming
weathering of silicate minerals, converting dissolved CO2 to that all of the nitrogen is completely converted to NO3− with-
bicarbonate (Weaver et al. 1999), is a likely origin of the high out any denitrification taking place (and without dilution) this
bicarbonate values. would result in NO3− concentrations between 53 and 390 mg/
The EC values and nitrate concentrations do not lie within L. Mean nitrate concentrations of 40 and 52 mg/L are reported
the typical ranges expected in hard rock aquifers. One reason for intensive agricultural activities (Jacks and Sharma 1983;
for high EC values is the semiarid climate of Jaipur. High Vikas et al. 2015). Thirdly, increased nitrogen concentration
evaporation rates and low precipitation can lead to an accu- in groundwater can be associated with weathering of bedrock
mulation of soluble salts from the weathering process in the nitrogen (Holloway and Dahlgren 2002)—for example, a
Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278 1273

geogenic nitrate contamination is reported for quartzite aqui- These findings are in agreement with Coyte et al. (2019)
fers in Srinagar, Uttarakhand, India (Gupta et al. 2015). So, who also describe the combination of natural and anthropo-
although leaking sewers and septic tanks are also likely to genic sources of salinity in Rajasthani aquifers. Therefore,
contribute to the nitrate contamination as well as to the high protective measures alone, as in hard rock aquifers, would
salinity, neither problem can be solved by groundwater pro- not solve the problem of high salinity. However, with the
tection measures alone. available data, it is not possible to determine the contribution
of each source, and the success of protection measures or
The alluvial aquifer changes in irrigation practices would strongly depend on that.

Groundwater samples from the alluvial aquifer locally show

different characteristics, described by the three subgroups of Mixing/aquifer interactions
group 2 (Amer Plain, NKT North and NKT West). The com-
mon characteristic of all group 2 samples is high EC values, The characteristics of subgroup 1-2 (NKT East) strongly indi-
ranging from 2,840 to 6,200 μS/cm. cate that the two aquifers are not completely separate units, but
In general, several processes can lead to an increase in that mixing takes place. All samples of subgroup 1-2 were
salinity of groundwater: evaporation, especially in semiarid taken in an area covered by Quaternary alluvial sediments;
and arid areas, infiltration of poor water quality (grey water, however, it is assumed that the wells tap the hard rock under-
irrigation water), and dissolution of minerals along the lying the alluvial sediments. Geoelectrical resistivity sound-
groundwater flow path (Etcheverry and Vennemann 2009; ings point towards a comparable shallow depth of the hard
Gat 1975). The high salinity in the study area is most probably rock layer in the northeast of Nai Ki Thari (30–40 mbgl).
caused by a combination of these processes. Evaporation is Interviews with the well owners revealed well depths of
likely to occur due to the semiarid climate of Rajasthan, which 110–140 m. Relatively high SiO2 concentrations compared
is supported by the stable isotope data that show the group 2 to other wells in Nai Ki Thari further support the hypothesis.
samples plotting on a local evaporation line. However, taking Comparably more negative isotope values indicate that there
a closer look at group 2 reveals that there is no apparent cor- might be only little evaporation taking place (in contrast to
relation between isotopic enrichment and increased EC subgroup 1-1) or that there is mixing with unevaporated water.
values, indicating that evaporation is not the sole source of According to the groundwater contour map, the groundwater
the high salinity in the alluvial aquifer. Cl/Br ratios (Fig. 7) comes from the west where the Aravalli Hill Ridge is located
of the samples point towards anthropogenic influences. Davis and which is presumably a recharge area. In the hard rock, the
et al. (1998) report molar ratios for urban sewage in England infiltration process is faster than in the alluvium and, therefore,
(UK) and the United States from 670 to 1,350, which is sim- less evaporation out of the soil zone can take place. Mixing
ilar to the ratios detected by Vengosh and Pankratov could occur due to the usual well construction, consisting of
(1998) for domestic wastewater in Israel (920–1,970). an open bore hole within the hard rock and a casing, often with
The wide ranges in Cl/Br ratios of sewage can be, among slotted parts, only for the alluvial part. As the use of clay seals
others, due to variations in source water or salt intake in the annular space is not a common practice, hydraulic con-
(Katz et al. 2011). With a Cl/Br ratio range of 550– nections between the aquifers are possible. Furthermore,
1,100 and a Cl concentration range of 920–1,700 mg/L, mixing can take place where no aquitard, e.g. clay lenses,
most samples from NKT West (subgroup 2-3) plot in the occurs. The available data and information lead to the conclu-
range of “anthropogenic and urban effects”, more precise- sion that both situations are given in the study area.
ly in the range of “leaching of garbage and solid waste”. Another example of mixing due to the well construction is
Subgroup NKT North (Cl/Br ratio: 700–1,100; Cl: 1,350– the hand pump KK_HP20. It shows high Si concentrations
2,000 mg/L) also falls under “anthropogenic and urban similar to the wells from Amer Hillside and is situated close
effects” as well as subgroup Amer Plain (Cl/Br ratio: to Khara Kuaa but falls into Amer Plain group, suggesting that
600–1,560; Cl: 550–1,700 mg/L) which shows more var- it is tapping both the alluvial aquifer and the hard rock aquifer.
iation. This corresponds with the observation that in most One sample from this hand pump has a nitrate concentration
places, sanitation and wastewater infrastructures are miss- of 567 mg/L and an ammonium concentration of 20 mg/L. It is
ing and that solid waste is dumped at empty plots within supposed that a case of direct infiltration by sewage took place
the community. Particularly high EC values and nitrate as the other three samples show NO3 concentrations around
concentrations and relatively positive isotope values of 200 mg/L. The hand pump is not protected, is situated near to
samples taken close to farming areas (subgroup 2-2 houses and on a street frequently used by animal herds. In
NKT North) clearly show the influence of agricultural such cases, protective measures (better well design, protection
practices (flood irrigation), and in this case strong evapo- zones around wells) would be suitable measures to improve
ration caused by water logging (Saha et al. 2014). the quality of the water supply.
1274 Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278

Fig. 7 Typical Cl/Br ratios for different types of salinity with own field data plotted (modified after Alcalá and Custodio 2008)

Groundwater recharge and storage capacity values, with an average of 1,325 μS/cm; although the reser-
voir shows a slightly higher EC value (1,457 μS/cm), as can
Groundwater recharge takes place in the Aravalli mountain be expected due to high evaporation losses and below-average
range and from the historic reservoirs located in the valleys monsoonal precipitation in the sampling year, the EC is still
between the hill ridges. The sample Amer Inflow, collected in much lower than the EC of the ambient groundwater
the hills in the northern part of the study area (Fig. 2), is (2,822 μS/cm). Secondly, the depth-to-water measurements
u nd er s t oo d t o m o s t c l os e l y re pr es e nt “p r i s t i ne ” (Fig. 8) and the groundwater level contour map (Fig. 5) also
(uncontaminated) and naturally recharged groundwater. It point towards a strong influence from the historic water res-
was collected in an area where hardly any anthropogenic in- ervoirs. Wells tapping the hard rock aquifer close to the his-
fluences could be observed, shows a much lower mineraliza- toric water reservoirs (blue lines in Fig. 8) show stable water
tion (576 μS/cm) than all other samples, plots in the range of tables throughout the year. Therefore, it is assumed that the
recharge waters in the Cl/Br diagram (Fig. 7) and plots closest groundwater of Amer Valley shares a high proportion of re-
to the LMWL of all samples, indicating that no or only little charge from the historic reservoir.
evaporation took place (Fig. 4). Dug wells located far away from the reservoirs show high
In contrast, the hand pump closest to the historic reservoir seasonal variations in groundwater levels (Fig. 8, green lines).
(KK_HP26) shows isotope values much more positive than all In March 2017, wells in and around Khara Kuaa ran dry, with
other groundwater samples. Because the isotope values lie only two recovering again after the monsoon, indicating a low
within the range of the historic reservoir samples, it is assumed storage capacity of the quartzite aquifer. This is further sup-
that the hand pump draws a large part of infiltrated water from ported by the level logger data showing a rapid water-table
the historic reservoir. The samples of subgroup 1-3 (Amer decline of about 20 m in 2 months (Fig. 6). The reaction time
Valley) also show a number of characteristics which point during the following monsoon season lies only in the frame of
towards a strong influence of groundwater recharge from the several days, implying a very low residence time in the hard
historic reservoirs: Firstly, they have comparatively low EC rock with a high risk of fast contaminations break-throughs.
Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278 1275

Fig. 8 a Local water-table change in the surroundings of the study area lines represent wells in the plain east of Amer Valley (green circle).
Khara Kuaa from September 2016 to January 2018. b Map of Khara Dashed lines symbolize that the wells ran dry. Red lines represent results
Kuaa and surroundings. a–b Light blue lines represent wells directly from wells tapping the alluvial aquifer (not shown on the map)
downgradient of the historic water reservoirs (light blue circle) and green

Protection zones around and downstream of the historic res- special concern. In Nai Ki Thari, the widespread infiltration of
ervoir would be crucial to prevent the deterioration of this wastewater into the alluvial aquifer increases the EC values of
comparatively good groundwater source. the groundwater. In its surrounding area (Amer Plain), irriga-
For comparison, wells situated near Nai Ki Thari tapping tion practices, e.g. flooding of fields, strengthen the evapora-
the alluvial aquifer show much less pronounced seasonal var- tion effect and lead to high abstraction rates. To conclude, the
iations (red lines in Fig. 8), indicating a higher storage capac- groundwater of the alluvial aquifer is not potable and further
ity of the alluvial aquifer and/or a bigger catchment area. degradation is likely to occur.
Large seasonal variations in the water table of the hard rock
aquifer make it an unreliable source for the local users.
Conceptual model Furthermore, the results point towards a contribution to the
reported high nitrate contamination through water–rock inter-
The findings are summarized in a conceptual model of the action. However, with the artificial reservoirs, both problems
study area (Fig. 9). The visualization gives a comprehensive could be solved, as can be seen in the groundwater of Amer
overview of the main hydrogeological processes and zones of Valley, where the infiltration of surface water from the historic

Fig. 9 Conceptual model of the study area. The Quaternary alluvium is overlying the Proterozoic fractured hard rock, which has a weathered zone at its
top. Various anthropogenic and geogenic influences characterize groundwater quality and quantity
1276 Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278

reservoirs leads to stable water tables and a dilution of the prohibited. The exceptional good water quality in this area
groundwater. An artificial recharge structure, e.g. a recharge (Amer Inflow) shows that it is not yet affected by anthropo-
pond, could be built north and upgradient of Khara Kuaa, genic activities. Protecting the historic reservoirs and sur-
where there is a small valley between hills. At this geological- rounding areas should also have a high priority, as the ground-
ly advantageous location, the rain that falls in this catchment water affected by the reservoir (Amer Valley) has a compara-
area during the monsoon season could be retained. Besides the bly good quality, but is at a high risk of contamination due to
aforementioned positive effects on the groundwater, this short residence times and low filtering effects of the hard rock
would have the additional advantage that Khara Kuaa would aquifer. However, further research is needed to understand
be better protected against flooding, which occurs regularly how Jaipur’s urbanization affects the local and regional
during the monsoon season. groundwater resources. For this, it is fundamental to improve
the existing monitoring network by making it not only denser
but also allocating the piezometers in a meaningful way. This
Conclusion would involve having piezometers with each tapping only one
of the two aquifers, piezometers located upgradient of the area
The groundwater of both aquifers, the overlying Quaternary of interest still showing pristine groundwater, piezometers at
alluvium and the Proterozoic fractured hard rock, is not pota- contamination hotspots, e.g. at agricultural sites, near the sew-
ble, due to high TDS and nitrate values above the permissible age dumping sites and within the settlements, and piezometers
limit (Bureau of Indian Standards 2012). For the present, the located downgradient of the historic water reservoirs. Such a
groundwater could be diluted by mixing with surface water dense and adapted network should then be used to apply a
from Bisalpur Dam, which would improve the raw water qual- problem-oriented sampling strategy, for example focusing
ity. This is already carried out at the municipal pump house in on seasonal changes (e.g. rapid water-table decline in the hard
Amer, where the mixed water is then chlorinated and finally rock aquifer), on local hotspots (e.g. high EC values in the
distributed. For the Nai Ki Thari study area, however, a pipe- alluvial aquifer, possible contamination through broken hand
line for surface water would first have to be built. pumps) and on surface-water/groundwater interactions (e.g.
Furthermore, many people in the low-income areas depend impact of historic reservoirs).
directly on the local groundwater to satisfy their daily water
demand. As natural sources contribute to both the high Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary
material available at [Link]
groundwater salinity and the nitrate contamination, ground-
water protection measures alone will not suffice to solve these
Acknowledgments This research was part of the project “Women’s
problems. To improve groundwater quality in the hard rock Action towards Climate Resilience for Urban Poor in South Asia” under
aquifer, artificial recharge seems to be a promising measure as the guidance of the Indian NGO Mahila Housing SEWA Trust. We are
this is found to work well in the hill area of Amer where grateful for hydrogeological data received from the Central Ground Water
Board, Jaipur, and for the permission by the Public Health and
infiltrating surface water from the historic reservoir dilutes
Engineering Department, Jaipur, to sample their wells. Furthermore, the
the groundwater. Further detailed research would be needed authors want to thank Mohsin Kahn, Kolja Bosch and Michael Mutz for
before implementing a recharge pond upgradient of Khara their great support during the field work. The authors also thank the
Kuaa, including, among others, research on the catchment editors and reviewers for their valuable feedback.
size, the average rainfall, the expected highest rainfall, the
Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.
infiltration capacity of the soil, and the acceptance of the com-
The project took place within the framework of the Global Resilience
munity, and a cost-and-benefit analysis. To determine the con- Partnership funded by The Rockefeller Foundation, USAID and Sida
tribution of geogenic sources to the nitrate contamination in for a 2-year period (2016–2018).
the hard rock aquifer, nitrogen isotope analyses and batch
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
experiments could be carried out. To improve groundwater Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adap-
quality in the alluvial aquifer, sanitation and wastewater infra- tation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as
structure must be installed and irrigation practices changed. you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, pro-
However, even if these measures are taken, the groundwater vide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were
made. The images or other third party material in this article are included
would still be salty; thus, it is proposed to use community in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a
reverse osmosis systems at least until the public supply with credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's
surface water is guaranteed. Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by
Considering the urbanization process which is especially statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain
permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this
affecting the peri-urban space, it would be advisable to start licence, visit [Link]
the planning and implementation of groundwater protection
zones now. Any building activity in the remote hilly areas,
which serve as important recharge zones, should be
Hydrogeol J (2021) 29:1261–1278 1277

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